FM 21-11

FIELD MANUAL

DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION:

DISTRIBUTION AUTHORIZED TO U.S. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES ONLY. THIS LIMITED
DISTRIBUTION IS INTENDED TO PROTECT TECHNICAL OR OPERATIONAL INFORMATION
FROM AUTOMATIC DISSEMINATION UNDER THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE
PROGRAM OR BY OTHER MEANS. THIS DETERMINATION WAS MADE ON 27 JULY 1 988.
OTHER REQUESTS FOR THIS DOCUMENT WILL BE REFERRED TO COMMANDANT,
ACADEMY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, U.S. ARMY, ATTN: HSHA-TLD, FORT SAM HOUSTON,
TEXAS 78234-6100.

DESTRUCTION NOTICE:

DESTROY BY ANY MEANS THAT WILL PREVENT DISCLOSURE OF CONTENTS OR
RECONSTRUCTION OF THE DOCUMENT.

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HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

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This publication contains copyrighted material.

FIELD MANUAL *FM 21-11

NO. 21-11 HEADQUARTERS

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

WASHINGTON, DC, 27 October 1988

FIRST AID FOR SOLDIERS

PREFACE

This manual meets the emergency medical training needs of individual
soldiers. Because medical personnel will not always be readily available,
the nonmedical soldiers will have to rely heavily on their own skills and
knowledge of life-sustaining methods to survive on the integrated
battlefield. This manual also addresses first aid measures for other life-
threatening situations. It outlines both— self-treatment (self-aid) and aid
to other soldiers (buddy aid). More importantly, this manual emphasizes
prompt and effective action in sustaining life and preventing or
minimizing further suffering. First aid is the emergency care given to the
sick, injured, or wounded before being treated by medical personnel. The
Army Dictionary defines first aid as "urgent and immediate hfesaving
and other measures which can be performed for casualties by nonmedical
personnel when medical personnel are not immediately available."
Nonmedical soldiers have received basic first aid training and should
remain skilled in the correct procedures for giving first aid. Mastery of
first aid procedures is also part of a group study training program
entitled the combat lifesaver (DA Pam 351-20). A combat Ufesaver is a
nonmedical soldier who has been trained to provide emergency care. This
includes administering intravenous infusions to casualties as his combat
mission permits. Normally, each squad, team, or crew will have one
member who is a combat lifesaver. This manual is directed to all soldiers.
The procedures discussed apply to all types of casualties and the
measures described are for use by both male and female soldiers. This
manual has been designed to provide a ready reference for the individual
soldier on first aid. Only the information necessary to support and sustain
proficiency in first aid has been boxed and the task number has been listed.
In addition, these first aid tasks for Skill Level 1 have been listed in
Appendix G. The task number, title, and specific paragraph of the
appropriate information is provided in the event a cross-reference is
desired.

Acknowledgment

Grateful acknowledgment is made to the American Heart Association for
their permission to use the copyrighted material on cardiopulmonary
resuscitation and emergency ceirdiac care.

*This publication supersedes FM 21-11, 7 October 1985.

FM 21-11

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Commercial Products

Commercial products (trade names or trademarks) mentioned in this
publication are to provide descriptive information and for illustrative
purposes only. Their use does not imply endorsement by the Department
of Defense.

Standardization Agreements

The provisions of this publication are the subject of international
agreement(s):

NATO STANAG TITLE

2122 Medical Training in First Aid, Basic

Hygiene and Emergency Care

2126 First Aid Kits and Emergency Medical

Care Kits

2358 Medical First Aid and Hygiene Training in

NBC Operations

2871 First Aid Material for Chemical Injuries

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Neutral Language

Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine gender is used, both
men and women are included.

Appendixes

Appendix A is a listing of the contents of the First Aid Case and Kits.

Appendix B discusses some casualty transportation procedures. Much is
dependent upon the manner in which a casualty is rescued and
transported.

Appendix C outlines some basic principles that promote good health. The
health of the individual soldier is an important factor in conserving the
fighting strength. History has often demonstrated that the course of the^
battle is influenced more by the health of the soldier than by strategy orfl
tactics. ^

FM 21-11

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Appendix D is supplemental information relating to Cardiopulmonary
Resuscitation (CPR) with two rescuers.

Appendix E discusses application of digital pressure and illustrates the
pressure points.

Appendix F discusses specific information on decontamination
procedures.

Appendix G is a listing of Skill Level 1 common tasks.

Proponent Statement

The proponent of this publication is the Academy of Health Sciences, US
Army. Submit changes for improving this publication on DA Form 2028
(Recommended Changes to Publications and Blank Forms) and forward
it to Commandant, Academy of Health Sciences, US Army, ATTN:
HSHA-TLD, Fort Sam Houston, Texas 78234-6100.

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FM 21-11

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FM 21-11

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CHAPTER 1
Section I.

Section II.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

FUNDAMENTAL CRITERIA FOR

FIRST AID 11

Evaluate Casualty 1-1

1-1. Casualty Evaluation (081-831-1000) 1-1

1-2. Medical Assistance (081-831-1000) 1-7

Understand Vital Body Functions 1-7

1-3. Respiration and Blood Circulation 1-7

1-4. Adverse Conditions 1-11

CHAPTER 2 BASIC MEASURES FOR FIRST AID 2 1

Section I. Open the Airway and Restore Breathing 2-1

2-1. Breathing Process and Cardiopulmonary

Resuscitation 2-1

2-2. Assessment (Evaluation) Phase

(081-831-1000 and 081-831-1042) 2-1

2-3. Opening the Airway— Unconscious and not

Breathing Casualty (081-831-1042) 2-3

L 2-4. Rescue Breathing (Artificial

} Respiration) 2-7

2-5. PreUminary Steps — All Rescue

Breathing Methods (081-831-1042) 2-7

2-6. Mouth-to-Mouth Method (081-831-1042) 2-8

2-7. Mouth-to-Nose Method 2-13

2-8. Heartbeat 2-13

2-9. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation 2-13

2-10. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation— One

Rescuer 2-18

2-11. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation— More than

One Rescuer 2-20

2-12. Airway Obstructions 2-21

2-13. Opening the Obstructed Airway-
Conscious Casualty (081-831-1003) 2-22

2-14. Open an Obstructed Airway

(081-831-1042)-Casualty Lying or

Unconscious 2-26

Section II. Stop the Bleeding and Protect the Wound 2-31

2-15. Clothing (081-831-1016) 2-31

2-16. Entrance and Exit Wounds 2-32

k 2-17. Field Dressing (081-831-1016) 2-32

I 2-18. Manual Pressure (081-831-1016) 2-35

2-19. Pressure Dressing (081-831-1016) 2-36

2-20. Tourniquet (081-831-1017) 2-39

FM 21-11

Section III.

CHAPTER 3
Section I.

Section II.

Section III.

Section IV.

CHAPTER 4

Pag^l

Check and Treat for Shock 2-44

2-21. Causes and Effects 2-44

2-22. Signs/Symptoms (081-831-1000) 2-44

2-23. Treatment/Prevention (081-831-1005) 2-45

FIRST AID FOR SPECIAL WOUNDS 3 1

Give Proper First Aid for Head Injuries 3-1

3-1, Head Injuries 3-1

3-2. Signs/Symptoms (081-831-1000) 3-1

3-3. General First Aid Measures (081-831-1000 )... 3-2

3-4. Dressings and Bandages 3-5

Give Proper First Aid for Face and Neck Injuries 3-13

3-5. Face Injuries 3-13

3-6. Neck Injuries 3-14

3-7. Procedure 3-14

3-8. Dressings and Bandages (081-831-1033) 3-16

Give Proper First Aid for Chest and Abdominal

Wounds and Burn Injuries 3-23

3-9. Chest Wounds (081-831-1026) 3-23

3-10. Chest Wound(s) Procedure (081-831-1026) 3-23^

3-11. Abdominal Wounds 3-28^

3-12. Abdominal Wound(s) Procedure ^

(081-831-1025) 3-29

3-13. Burn Injuries 3-33

3-14. First Aid for Burns (081-831-1007) 3-33

Apply Proper Bandages to Upper and Lower

Extremities 3-37

3-15. Shoulder Bandage 3-37

3-16. Elbow Bandage 3-39

3-17. Hand Bandage 3-40

3-18. Leg (Upper and Lower) Bandage 3-42

3-19. Knee Bandage 3-42

3-20. Foot Bandage 3-43

FIRST AID FOR FRACTURES 4 1

4-1. Kinds of Fractures 4-1

4-2. Signs/Symptoms of Fractures

(081-831-1000) 4-2

4-3. Purposes of Immobilizing Fractures 4-2

4-4. Splints, Padding, Bandages, SUngs,

and Swathes (081-831-1034) 4-2

4-5. Procedures for SpUnting Suspected

Fractures (081-831-1034) 4-3^

4-6. Upper Extremity Fractures (081-831-1034).... 4-loW

4-7. Lower Extremity Fractures (081-831-1034).... 4-14

4-8. Jaw, Collarbone, and Shoulder Fractures 4-17

VI

FM 21-11

CHAPTER 5

CHAPTER 6

Page

4-9. Spinal Column Fractures (081-83 1-1 000) 4-19

4-10. Neck Fractures (081-831-1000) 4-22

FIRST AID FOR CLIMATIC INJURIES 5 1

5-1. Heat Injuries 5-1

5-2. Cold Injuries 5-8

FIRST AID FOR BITES AND STINGS 6 1

6-1. Types of Snakes 6-1

6-2. Snakebites 6-5

6-3. Human and Other Animal Bites 6-9

6-4. Marine (Sea) Animals 6-10

6-5. Insect Bites/Stings 6-11

6-6. Table 6-15

CHAPTER 7
Section I.

Section II.

Section III.

Section IV.

CHAPTER 8

FIRST AID IN TOXIC ENVIRONMENTS 7 1
Individual Protection and First Aid

Equipment For Toxic Substances 7-1

7-1. Toxic Substances 7-1

7-2. Protective and First Aid Equipment 7-1

Chemical-Biological Agents 7-3

7-3. Classification 7-3

7-4. Conditions for Masking Without Order

or Alarm 7-3

7-5. First Aid for a Chemical Attack

(081-831-1030 and 081-831-1031) 7-5

Nerve Agents 7-6

7-6. Background Information 7-6

7-7. Signs/Symptoms of Nerve Agent Poisoning

(081-831-1030 and 081-831-1031) 7-7

7-8. First Aid for Nerve Agent Poisoning

(081-831-1030) 7-8

Other Agent 7-21

7-9. BUster Agent 7-21

7-10. Choking Agents (Lung-Damaging Agents) 7-23

7-11. Blood Agents 7-24

7-12. Incapacitating Agents 7-25

7-13. Incendiaries 7-26

7-14. First Aid for Biological Agents 7-27

7-15. Toxins 7-28

7-16. Radiological 7-30

FIRST AID FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL

REACTIONS 81
8-1. Explanation of Term "Psychological First

Aid" 8-1

8-2. Importance of Psychological First Aid 8-1

VII

FM 21-11

Appendix A

Appendix B

Page

8-3. Situations Requiring Psychological First

Aid 8-2

8-4. Interrelation of Psychological and

Physical First Aid 8-2

8-5. Goals of Psychological First Aid 8-3

8-6. Respect for Others' Feelings 8-3

8-7. Emotional and Physical Disability 8-3

8-8. Emotional Reaction to Injury 8-4

8-9. Emotional Reserve Strength of

Distressed Soldiers 8-5

8-10. Battle Fatigue (and Other Combat

Stress Reactions [CSR]) 8-5

8-11. Reactions to Stress 8-5

8-12. Severe Stress or Battle Fatigue

Reactions 8-8

8-13. AppUcation of Psychological First

Aid 8-8

8-14. Reactions and Limitations 8-10

8-15. Tables 8-11

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FIRST AID CASE AND KITS,

DRESSINGS, AND BANDAGES A-1

A-1. First Aid Case with Field Dressings

and Bandages A-1

A-2. General Purpose First Aid Kits A-1

A-3. Contents of First Aid Case and Kits A-2

A-4. Dressings A-4

A-5. Standard Bandages A-4

A-6. Triangular and Cravat (Swathe)

Bandages A-4

RESCUE AND TRANSPORTATION

PROCEDURES B-l

B-1. General B-l

B-2. Principles of Rescue Operations B-l

B-3. Task (Rescue) Identification B-l

B-4. Circumstances of the Rescue B-2

B-5. Plan of Action B-2

B-6. Mass Casualties B-3

B-7. Proper HandUng of Casualties B-4

B-8. Transportation of Casualties B-4

B-9. Manual Carries (081-831-1040 and

081-831-1041) B-5
B-10. Improvised Litters (Figures B-15

through B-17) (081-831-1041) B-32

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FM 21-11

Page

Appendix C COMMON PROBLEMS/CONDITIONS CI

Section I. HEALTH MAINTENANCE C 1

C-1. General C-1

C-2. Personal Hygiene C-1

C-3. Diarrhea and Dysentery C-1

C-4. Dental Hygiene C-3

C-5. Drug (Substance) Abuse C-3

C-6. SexuaUy Transmitted Diseases C-3

Section II. First Aid For Common Problems C-6

C-7. Heat Rash (or Prickly Heat) C-6

C-8. Contact Poisoning (Skin Rashes) C-7

C-9. Care of the Feet C-8

C-10. Blisters C-9

Appendix D

CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION
WITH TWO RESCUERS D-1

D-1. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

Procedures D-1

D-2. Cessation of Resuscitative Measures D-4

i Appendix E DIGITAL PRESSURE El

Appendix F DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES Fl

F-1 . Protective Measures and Handling of

Casualties F-1

F-2. Personal Decontamination F-2

F-3. Casualty Decontamination F-10

Appendix G SKILL LEVEL 1 TASKS Gl

Glossary Glossary-1

References References-1

Index Index-1

IX

FM 21-11

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1-1. Airway, lungs, and chest cage 1-8

1-2. Neck (carotid) pulse 1-9

1-3. Groin (femoral) pulse 1-10

1-4. Wrist (radial) pulse 1-10

1-5. Ankle (posterial tibial) pulse 1-11

2- 1 . I nitial steps of cardiopulmonary resuscitation 2-2

2-2. Airway blocked by tongue 2-3

2-3. Airway opened by extending neck 2-4

2-4. Jaw thrust technique of opening airway 2-5

2-5. Head tilt/chin lift technique of opening airway 2-6 "

2-6. Check for breathing 2-8

2-7. Head tilt/chin lift 2-9

2-8. Rescue breathing 2-10

2-9. Placement of fingers to detect pulse 2-11

2-10. Rib cage and heart 2-14

2-11. Lower edge of ribs 2-15

2-12. Center of lower chest 2-15

2-13. Fingers and hand on lower end of breastbone 2-16

2-14. Positioning of hands 2-16

2-15. Rescuer giving chest compressions 2-17

2-16. Breastbone depressed 1 1/2 to 2 inches 2-17 m

2-17. One rescuer method of CPR 2-19

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FM 21-11

Figure Page

2-18. Universal sign of choking 2-23

2-19. Anatomical view of abdominal thrust procedure 2-24

2-20. Profile view of abdominal thrust 2-24

2-21. Profile view of chest thrust 2-25

2-22. Abdominal thrust on unconscious casualty 2-27

2-23. Hand placement for chest thrust (Illustrated A-D) 2-28

2-24. Breastbone depressed 1 1/2 to 2 inches 2-29

2-25. Opening casualty's mouth (tongue-jaw hft) 2-30

2-26. Opening casualty's mouth (crossed-finger method) 2-30

2-27. Using finger to dislodge foreign body 2-31

2-28. Grasping tails of dressing with both hands 2-33

2-29. PuUing dressing open 2-33

2-30. Placing dressing directly on wound 2-34

2-31. Wrapping tail of dressing around injured part 2-34

2-32. Tails tied into nonslip knot 2-35

2-33. Direct manual pressure applied 2-35

2-34. Injured limb elevated 2-36

2-35. Wad of padding on top of field dressing 2-37

2-36. Improvised dressing over wad of padding 2-37

2-37. Ends of improvised dressing wrapped tightly around limb. 2-38

2-38. Endsof improvised dressing tied together in nonslip knot.. 2-38

2-39. Tourniquet 2 to 4 inches above wound 2-40

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FM 21-11

Figure Page ^

2-40. Rigid object on top of half-knot 2-41

2-41. Full knot over rigid object 2-41

2-42. Stick twisted 2-42

2-43. Free ends looped (Illustrated A and B) 2-42

2-44. Clothing loosened and feet elevated 2-46

2-45. Body temperature maintained 2-46

2-46. Casualty's head turned to side 2-47

3-1. Casualty lying on side opposite injury 3-6

3-2. First tail of dressing wrapped horizontally around head 3-8

3-3. Second tail wrapped in opposite direction 3-9 M

3-4. Tails tied in nonslip knot at side of head 3-9

3-5. Dressing placed overwound 3-10

3-6. One tail of dressing wrapped under chin 3-10

3-7. Remaining t£dl wrapped under chin in opposite direction... 3-11

3-8. Tails of dressing crossed with one around forehead 3-1 1

3-9. Teiils tied in nonslip knot (in front of and above ear) 3-12

3-10. Triangularbandageappliedtohead(Illustrated A thruC). 3-12

3-11. Cravat bandage applied to head (Illustrated A thru C) 3-13

3-12. Casualty leaning forward to permit drainage 3-15

3-13. Casualty lying on side 3-15

3-14. Side of head or cheek wound 3-18 "

3-15. Dressing placed directly on wound. (Illustrated A and B). 3-19

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FM 21-11

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Figure Page

3-16. Bringing second tail under the chin 3-19

3-17. Crossing the tails on the side of the wound 3-20

3-18. Tjdng the tails of the dressing in a nonslip knot 3-20

3-19. Applying cravat bandage to ear (Illustrated A thru C) 3-21

3-20. Applying cravat bandage to jaw (Illustrated A thru C) 3-22

3-21. Collapsed lung 3-23

3-22. Open chest wound sealed with plastic wrapper 3-25

3-23. Shaking open the field dressing 3-26

3-24. Field dressing placed on plastic wrapper 3-26

3-25. Tails of field dressing wrapped around casualty in

opposite direction 3-27

3-26. Tails of dressing tied into nonslip knot over center

of dressing 3-27

3-27. Casualty positioned (lying) on injured side 3-28

3-28. Casualty positioned (lying) on back with knees (flexed) up.. 3-29

3-29. Protruding organs placed near wound 3-30

3-30. Dressing placed directly over the wound 3-31

3-31. Dressing applied and tails tied with a nonslip knot 3-32

3-32. Field dressing covered with improvised material and

loosely tied 3-32

3-33. Casualty covered and rolled on ground 3-33

3-34. Casualty removed from electrical source (using

nonconductive material) 3-34

3-35. Shoulder bandage 3-37

3-36. Extended cravat bandage apphed to shoulder (or armpit)

(lUustrated A thru H) 3-38

XIII

FM 21-11

Figure Page ^

3-37. Elbow bandage (Illustrated A thru C) 3-40

3-38. Triangular bandage applied to hand (Illustrated A thru E)... 3-40

3-39. Cravat bandage applied to palm of hand (Illustrated

A thru F) 3-41

3-40. Cravat bandage applied to leg (Illustrated A thru C) 3-42

3-41. Cravat bandage applied to knee (Illustrated A thru C) 3-42

3-42. Triangularbandageappliedtofoot (Illustrated A thru E).... 3-43

4-1. Kinds of fractures (Illustrated A thru C) 4-1

4-2. Nonslip knots tied away from casualty 4-6

4-3. Shirt tail used for support 4-7

4-4. Belt used for support 4-7

4-5. Arm inserted in center of improvised sling 4-7 V

4-6. Ends of improvised sling tied to side of neck 4-8

4-7. Corner of sling twisted and tucked at elbow 4-8

4-8. Arm immobilized with strip of clothing 4-9

4-9. Application of triangular bandage to form sling

(two methods) 4-10

4-10. Completing sling sequence by twisting and tucking the

comer of the sUng at the elbow (Illustrated A and B) 4-11

4-11. Board spUnts applied to fractured elbow when elbow is
not bent (two methods) (081-831-1034)

(Illustrated A and B) 4-11

4-12. Chest wall used as splint for upper arm fracture when

no splint is available (Illustrated A and B) 4-12

4-13. Chest wall, sling, and cravat used to immobilize fractured

elbow when elbow is bent 4-12

4-14. Board splint applied to fractured forearm

(Illustrated A and B) '. 4-13

XIV

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FM 21-11

Figure Page

4-15. Fractured forearm or wrist splinted with sticks and
supported with tail of shirt and strips of material
(Illustrated A thru C) 4-13

4-16. Board splint applied to fractured wrist and hand

(Illustrated A thru C) 4-14

4-17. Board splint applied to fractured hip or thigh

(081-831-1034) 4-14

4-18. Board spUnt applied to fractured or dislocated knee

(081-831-1034) 4-15

4-19. Board splint applied to fractured lower leg or ankle 4-15

4-20. Improvised splint applied to fractured lower leg or ankle 4-16

4-21. Poles rolled in a blanket and used as splints applied to

fractured lower extremity 4-16

4-22. Uninjured leg used as splint for fractured leg

(anatomical splint) 4-17

4-23, Fractured jaw immobilized (Illustrated A thru C) 4-17

4-24. Application of belts, sling, and cravat to immobilize

a collarbone 4-18

4-25. AppUcation of sling and cravat to immobilize a fractured

or dislocated shoulder (Illustrated A thru D) 4-19

4-26. Spinal column must maintain a sway back position

(lUustrated A and B) 4-20

4-27. Placing face-up casualty with fractured back onto litter 4-21

4-28. Casualty with roll of cloth (bulk) under neck 4-23

4-29. Immobilization of fractured neck 4-23

4-30. Preparing casualty with fractured neck for transportation

(Illustrated A thru E) 4-25

6-1. Characteristics of nonpoisonous snake 6-1

6-2. Characteristics of poisonous pit viper 6-2

XV

FM 21-11

Figure Page

6-3. Poisonous snakes 6-2

6-4. Cobra snake 6-3

6-5. Coral snake 6-4

6-6. Sea snake 6-5

6-7. Characteristics of poisonous snake bite 6-5

6-8. Constricting band 6-7

6-9. Brown recluse spider 6-11

6-10. Black widow spider 6-12

6-11. Tarantula 6-12

6-12. Scorpion 6-12

7-1. Nerve Agent Antidote Kit, Mark 1 7-6

7-2. Thigh injection site 7-8

7-3. Buttocks injection site 7-9

7-4. Holding the set of autoinjectors by the plastic clip 7-10

7-5. Grasping the atropine autoinjector between the thumb

and first two fingers of the hand 7-10

7-6. Removing the atropine autoinjector from the clip 7-11

7-7. Thigh injection site for self-aid 7-11

7-8. Buttocks injection site for self-aid 7-12

7-9. Used atropine autoinjector placed between the little

finger and ring finger 7-13

7-10. Removing the 2 P AM CI autoinjector 7-13

7-11. One set of used autoinjectors attached to pocket flap 7-14

7-12. Injecting the casualty's thigh 7-18

7-13. Injecting the casualty's buttocks .\. 7-19

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FM 21-11

Figure Page

7-14. Three sets of used autoinjectors attached to pocket flap 7-21

A-1. Field first aid case and dressing

(Illustrated A thru C) A-1

A-2. Triangular and cravat bandages (Illustrated A thru E) A-5

B-1. Fireman's carry (Illustrated A thru N) B-6

B-2. Support carry B- 14

B-3. Arms carry B-14

B-4. Saddleback carry B-15

B-5. Pack-strap carry (Illustrated A and B) B- 16

B-6. Pistol-belt carry (Illustrated A thru F) B- 17

B-7. Pistol-belt drag B- 19

B-8. Neck drag B- 20

B-9. Cradle drop drag (Illustrated A thru D) B- 21

B-10. Two-man support carry (Illustrated A and B) B- 23

B-11. Two-man arms carry (Illustrated A thru D) B- 25

B-12. Two-man fore-and-aft carry (Illustrated A thru C) B- 27

B-13. Two-hand seat carry (Illustrated A and B) B- 29

B-14. Four-hand seat carry (Illustrated A and B) B- 30

B-15. Improvised litter with poncho and poles

(Illustrated A thru C) B- 32

B-1 6. Improvised litter made with poles and jackets

(Illustrated A and B) B-33

B-1 7. Improvised htters made by inserting poles through

sacks and by rolhng blanket B- 33

C-1. Poison ivy C-7

C-2. Western poison oak C-7

xvii

FM 21-11

Figure Page ^

C-3. Poison sumac C-7

C-4. Protect an unbroken blister C-9

C-5. Drain the blister likely to break C-10

D-1. Two Rescuer CPR D-2

E-1 . Digital pressure (pressure with fingers, thumbs or hands).. E-1

F-1. M258A1 Skin Decontamination Kit F-4

Tables Page

5-1. Sun or Heat Injuries (081-831-1008) 5-6

5-2. Cold and Wet Injuries (081-831-1009) 5-19 J

6-1. Bites and Stings 6-15

8-1. Mild Battle Fatigue 8-12

8-2. More Serious Battle Fatigue 8-13

8-3. Preventive Measures to Combat Battle Fatigue 8-14

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XVIII

FM 21-11
CHAPTER 1

FUNDAMENTAL CRITERIA FOR FIRST AID
INTRODUCTION

Soldiers may have to depend upon their first aid knowledge and skills to
save themselves or other soldiers. They may be able to save a life, prevent
permanent disability, and reduce long periods of hospitalization by
knowing what to do, what not to do, and when to seek medical assistance.
Anything soldiers can do to keep others in good fighting condition is part
of the primary mission to fight or to support the weapons system. Most
injured or ill soldiers are able to return to their units to fight and/or
support primarily because they are given appropriate and timely first aid
followed by the best medical care possible. Therefore, all soldiers must
remember the basics:

• Check for BREATHING: Lack of oxygen intake
(through a compromised airway or inadequate breathing) can lead to brain
damage or death in very few minutes.

• Check for BLEEDING: Life cannot continue without
an adequate volume of blood to carry oxygen to tissues.

• Check for SHOCK: Unless shock is prevented or
treated, death may result even though the injury would not otherwise be
fatal.

Section I. EVALUATE CASUALTY

1-1. Casualty Evaluation (081-831-1000)

The time may come when you must instantly apply your knowledge of
lifesaving and first aid measures, possibly under combat or other adverse
conditions. Any soldier observing an unconscious and/or ill, injured, or
wounded person must carefully and skillfully evaluate him to determine
the first aid measures required to prevent further injury or death. He
should seek help from medical personnel as soon as possible, but must
NOT interrupt his evaluation or treatment of the casualty. A second
person may be sent to find medical help. One of the cardinal principles of
treating a casualty is that the initial rescuer must continue the
evaluation and treatment, as the tactical situation permits, until he is
reheved by another individual. If, during any part of the evaluation, the
casualty exhibits the conditions for which the soldier is checking, the
soldier must stop the evaluation and immediately administer first aid. In
a chemical environment, the soldier should not evaluate the casualty

1-1

FM 21-11

•

until the casualty has been masked and given the antidote. After
providing first aid, the soldier must proceed with the evaluation and
continue to monitor the casualty for further medical complications until
relieved by medical personnel. Learn the following procedures well. You
may become that soldier who will have to give first aid some day.

NOTE

Remember, when evaluating and/or treating a
casualty, you should seek medical aid as soon
as possible. DO NOT stop treatment, but if the
situation allows, send another person to find
medical aid.

WARNING

Again, remember, if there are any signs of
chemical or biological agent poisoning, you
should immediately mask the casualty. If it is
nerve agent poisoning, administer the antidote,
using the casualty's injector/ampules. See task
081-831-1031, Administer First Aid to a Nerve
Agent Casualty (Buddy Aid).

<

a. Step ONE. Check the casualty for responsiveness by gently
shaking or tapping him while calmly asking, "Are you okay?" Watch for
response. If the casualty does not respond, go to step TWO. See Chapter
2, paragraph 2-5 for more information. If the casualty responds, continue
with the evaluation.

(1) If the casu£dty is conscious, ask him where he feels
different than usual or where it hurts. Ask him to identify the location(s)
of pain if he can, or to identify the area in which there is no feeling.

(2) If the casualty is conscious but is choking and cannot
talk, stop the evaluation and begin treatment. See task 081-831-1003,
Clear an Object from the Throat of a Conscious Casualty. Also see
Chapter 2, paragraph 2-13 for specific details on opening the airway.

{

1-2

FM 21-11

WARNING

IF A BROKEN NECK OR BACK IS
SUSPECTED, DO NOT MOVE THE
CASUALTY UNLESS TO SAVE HIS LIFE.
MOVEMENT MAY CAUSE PERMANENT
PARALYSIS OR DEATH.

b. Step TWO. Check for breathing. See Chapter 2, paragraph
2-5c for procedure,

(1) If the casualty is breathing, proceed to step FOUR.

(2) If the casualty is not breathing, stop the evaluation and
begin treatment (attempt to ventilate). See task 081-831-1042, Perform
Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation. If an airway obstruction is apparent,
cleeir the airway obstruction, then ventilate.

(3) After successfully clearing the casualty's airway,
proceed to step THREE.

c. Step THREE. Check for pulse. If pulse is present, and the
casualty is breathing, proceed to step FOUR.

(1) If pulse is present, but the casualty is still not
breathing, start rescue breathing. See Chapter 2, paragraphs 2-6, and 2-7
for specific methods.

(2) If pulse is not present, start cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR). CPR should be given only by quahfied personnel.
See Chapter 2, paragraph 2-10 for procedure.

d. Step FOUR. Check for bleeding. Look for spurts of blood or
blood-soaked clothes. Also check for both entry and exit wounds. // the
casualty is bleeding from an open wound, stop the evaluation and begin
first aid treatment in accordance with the following tasks, as
appropriate:

(1) Arm or leg wound-Task 081-831-1016, Put on a Field
or Pressure Dressing. See Chapter 2, paragraphs 2-17, 2-18, and 2-19.

(2) Partial or complete amputation— Task 081-831-1017,
Put on a Tourniquet. See Chapter 2, paragraph 2-20.

(3) Open head wound-Task 081-831-1033, Apply a
Dressing to an Open Head Wound. See Chapter 3, Section I.

1-3

FM 21-11

4

(4)
Dressing to an

Open abdominal wound— Task 081-831-1025, Apply a
Open Abdominal Wound. See Chapter 3, Section III.

(5)
Dressing to an

Open chest wound-Task 081-831-1026, Apply a
Open Chest Wound. See Chapter 3, Section III,

WARNING

IN A CHEMICALLY CONTAMINATED
AREA, DO NOT EXPOSE THE WOUND(S).

e. Step FIVE. Check for shock. If signs/symptoms of shock are
present, stop the evaluation and begin treatment immediately. The
following are nine signs and/or symptoms of shock.

(1)

Sweaty but cool skin (clammy skin).

(2)

Paleness of skin.

(3)

Restlessness or nervousness.

(4)

Thirst.

(5)

Loss of blood (bleeding).

(6)

Confusion (does not seem aware of surroundings).

(7)

Faster than normal breathing rate.

(8)

Blotchy or bluish skin, especially around the mouth.

(9)

Nausea and/or vomiting.

WARNING

LEG FRACTURES MUST BE SPLINTED
BEFORE ELEVATING THE LEGS AS A
TREATMENT FOR SHOCK.

<

See Chapter 2, Section III for specific information regarding the causes m
and effects, signs/symptoms, and the treatment/prevention of shock. ^

1-4

FM 21-11

)

f. Step SIX. Check for fractures (Chapter 4).

(1) Check for the following signs/ symptoms of a back or
neck injury and treat as necessary.

• Pain or tenderness of the neck or back area.

• Cuts or bruises in the neck or back area.

• Inability of a casualty to move (paralysis or

numbness).

o Ask about ability to move (paralysis)

o Touch the casualty's arms and legs and ask
whether he can feel your hand (numbness).

• Unusual body or hmb position.

WARNING

UNLESS THERE IS IMMEDIATE LIFE-
THREATENING DANGER, DO NOT MOVE
A CASUALTY WHO HAS A SUSPECTED
BACK OR NECK INJURY. MOVEMENT
MAY CAUSE PERMANENT PARALYSIS
OR DEATH.

(2) Immobilize any casualty suspected of having a neck or
back injury by doing the following:

• Tell the casualty not to move.

• If a back injury is suspected, place padding (rolled
or folded to conform to the shape of the arch) under the natural arch of
the casualty's back. For example, a blanket may be used as padding.

• If a neck injury is suspected, place a roll of cloth
under the casualty's neck and put weighted boots (filled with dirt, sand,
and so forth) or rocks on both sides of his head.

(3) Check the casualty's arms and legs for open or closed
fractures.

1-5

FM 21-11

I

• Check for open fractures,
o Look for bleeding.

o Look for bone sticking through the skin.

• Check for closed fractures,
o Look for swelhng.

o Look for discoloration,

o Look for deformity.

o Look for unusual body position.

(4) Stop the evaluation and begin treatment if a fracture to
an arm or leg is suspected. See task 081-831-1034, Splint a Suspected
Fracture.

(5) Check for signs/symptoms of fractures of other body m
areas (for example, shoulder or hip) and treat as necessary. "

g. Step SEVEN. Check for burns. Look carefully for reddened,
bhstered, or charred skin, also check for singed clothing. If burns are
found, stop the evaluation and begin treatment (Chapter 3, paragraph
3-14). See task 081-831-1007. Give First Aid for Burns.

h. Step EIGHT. Check for possible head injury.
(1) Look for the following signs and symptoms:

• Unequal pupils.

• Fluid from the ear(s), nose, mouth, or injury site.

• Slurred speech.

• Confusion.

• Sleepiness.

• Loss of memory or consciousness.

• Staggering in walking.

{

1-6

FM 21-11

>

Headache.

Dizziness.

Vomiting and/or nausea.

Paralysis.

Convulsions or twitches.

(2) If a head injury is suspected, continue to watch for signs
which would require performance of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation,
treatment for shock, or control of bleeding and seek medical aid. See
Chapter 3, Section I for specific indications of head injury and treatment.
See task 081-831-1033, Apply a Dressing to an Open Head Wound.

1-2. Medical Assistance (081-831-1000)

'when a nonmedically trained soldier comes upon an unconscious and/or
injured soldier, he must accurately evaluate the casualty to determine the
first aid measures needed to prevent further injury or death. He should seek
medical assistance as soon as possible, but he MUST NOT interrupt
treatment. To interrupt treatment may cause more harm than good to the
casualty. A second person may be sent to find medical help. If, during any
part of the evaluation, the casualty exhibits the conditions for which the
soldier is checking, the soldier must stop the evaluation and immediately
administer first aid. Remember that in a chemical environment, the soldier
should not evaluate the casualty untU the casualty has been masked and
given the antidote. After performing first aid, the soldier must proceed with
the evaluation and continue to monitor the casualty for development of
conditions which may require the performance of necessary basic life saving
measures, such as clearing the airway, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation,
preventing shock, and/or bleeding control. He should continue to monitor
until relieved by medical personnel.

Section II. UNDERSTAND VITAL BODY FUNCTIONS

1-3. Respiration and Blood Circulation

Respiration (inhalation and exhalation) and blood circulation are vital
body functions. Interruption of either of these two functions need not be
fatal IF appropriate first aid measures are correctly applied.

1-7

FM 21-11

i

a. Respiration. When a person inhales, oxygen is taken into the
body and when he exhales, carbon dioxide is expelled from the body— this
is respiration. Respiration involves the—

• Airway (nose, mouth, throat, voice box, windpipe, and
bronchial tree). The canal through which air passes to and from the lungs.

• Lungs (two elastic organs made up of thousands of tiny
air spaces and covered by an airtight membrane).

• Chest cage (formed by the muscle-connected ribs which
join the spine in back and the breastbone in front). The top part of the
chest cage is closed by the structure of the neck, and the bottom part is
separated from the abdominal cavity by a large dome-shaped muscle
called the diaphragm (Figure 1-1). The diaphragm and rib muscles, which
are under the control of the respiratory center in the brain, automatically
contract and relax. Contraction increases and relaxation decreases the
size of the chest cage.

When the chest cage increases and then decreases, the air pressure in the
lungs is first less and then more than the atmospheric pressure, thus d
causing the air to rush in and out of the lungs to equalize the pressure. ^
This cycle of inhaUng and exhaling is repeated about 12 to 18 times per
minute.

RIBS

MUSCLES

NOSE
MOUTH

TONGUE
VOICEBOX

THROAT

WINDPIPE

DIAPHRAGM

BRONCHIAL TREE

ABDOMINAL CAVITY

i

Figure 1-1. Airway, lungs, and chest cage.

1-8

FM 21-11

b. Blood Circulation. The heart and the blood vessels (arteries,
veins, and capillaries) circulate blood through the body tissues. The heart
is divided into two separate halves, each acting as a pump. The left side
pumps oxygenated blood (bright red) through the arteries into the
capillaries; nutrients and oxygen pass from the blood through the walls
of the capillaries into the cells. At the same time waste products and
carbon dioxide enter the capillaries. From the capillaries the oxygen poor
blood is carried through the veins to the right side of the heart and then
into the lungs where it expels carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen. Blood
in the veins is dark red because of its low oxygen content. Blood does not
flow through the veins in spurts as it does through the arteries.

(1) Heartbeat The heart functions as a pump to circulate
the blood continuously through the blood vessels to all parts of the body.
It contracts, forcing the blood from its chambers; then it relaxes,
permitting its chambers to refill with blood. The rhythmical cycle of
contraction and relaxation is called the heartbeat. The normal heeirtbeat
is from 60 to 80 beats per minute.

(2) Pulse. The heartbeat causes a rhythmical expansion and
contraction of the arteries as it forces blood through them. This cycle of
expansion and contraction can be felt (monitored) at various body points
and is called the pulse. The common points for checking the pulse are at
the side of the neck (carotid), the groin (femoral), the wrist (radial), and
the ankle (posterial tibial).

(a) Neck (carotid) pulse. To check the neck (carotid)
pulse, feel for a pulse on the side of the casualty's neck closest to you by
placing the tips of your first two fingers beside his Adam's apple (Figure
1-2).

NECK PULSE SITE

Figure 1-2. Neck (carotid} pulse.

1-9

FM 21-11

I

(b) Groin (femoral) pulse. To check the groin (femoral)
pulse, press the tips of two fingers into the middle of the groin (Figure
1-3).

GROIN PULSE SITE

{

Figure 1-3. Groin (femoral) pulse.

(c) Wrist (radial) pulse. To check the wrist (radial)
pulse, place your first two fingers on the thumb side of the casualty's
wrist (Figure 1-4).

WRIST PULSE SITE

i

Figure 1-4. Wrist (radial) pulse.

1-10

FM 21-11

t

(d) Ankle (posterial tibial) pulse. To check the ankle
(posterial tibial) pulse, place your first two fingers on the inside of the
ankle (Figure 1-5).

)

ANKLE PULSE SITE

Figure 1-5. Ankle (posterial tibial) pulse.

NOTE

DO NOT use your thumb to check a casualty's
pulse because you may confuse your pulse beat
with that of the casualty.

1-4. Adverse Conditions

\

a. Lack of Oxygen. Human life cannot exist without a
continuous int£ike of oxygen. Lack of oxygen rapidly leads to death. First
aid involves knowing how to OPEN THE AIRWAY AND RESTORE
BREATHING AND HEARTBEAT (Chapter 2, Section I).

b. Bleeding. Human Ufe cannot continue without an adequate
volume of blood to carry oxygen to the tissues. An important first aid
measure is to STOP THE BLEEDING to prevent loss of blood (Chapter
2, Section II).

1-11

FM 21-11

i

c. Shock. Shock means there is inadequate blood flow to the
vital tissues and organs. Shock that remains uncorrected may result in
death even though the injury or condition causing the shock would not
otherwise be fatal. Shock can result from many causes, such as loss of
blood, loss of fluid from deep burns, pain, and reaction to the sight of a
wound or blood. First aid includes PREVENTING SHOCK, since the
casualty's chances of survival are much greater if he does not develop
shock (Chapter 2, Section III).

d. Infection. Recovery from a severe injury or a wound depends
largely upon how well the injury or wound was initially protected.
Infections result from the multiplication and growth (spread) of germs
(bacteria: harmful microscopic organisms). Since harmful bacteria are in
the air and on the skin and clothing, some of these organisms will
immediately invade (contaminate) a break in the skin or an open wound.
The objective is to KEEP ADDITIONAL GERMS OUT OF THE
WOUND. A good working knowledge of basic first aid measures also
includes knowing how to dress the wound to avoid infection or additional
contamination (Chapters 2 and 3).

1-12

FM 21-11

>

CHAPTER 2

BASIC MEASURES FOR FIRST AID
INTRODUCTION

Several conditions which require immediate attention are: an inadequate
airway, lack of breathing or lack of heartbeat, and excessive loss of blood. A
casualty without a clear airway or who is not breathing may die from lack of
oxygen. Excessive loss of blood may lead to shock, and shock can lead to
death; therefore, you must act immediately to control the loss of blood. All
wounds are considered to be contaminated, since infection-producing
organisms (germs) are always present on the skin, on clothing, and in the air.
Any missile or instrument causing the wound pushes or carries the germs into
the wound. Infection results as these organisms multiply. That a wound is
contaminated does not lessen the importance of protecting it from further
contamination. You must dress and bandage a wound as soon as possible to
prevent further contamination. It is also important that you attend to any
airway, breathing, or bleeding problem IMMEDIATELY because these
problems may become life-threatening.

Section I. OPEN THE AIRWAY AND RESTORE BREATHING

2-1. Breathing Process and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

All living things must have oxygen to live. Through the breathing
process, the lungs draw oxygen from the air and put it into the blood. The
heart then pumps the blood through the body to be used by the Uving
cells which require a constant supply of oxygen. Some cells are more
dependent on a constant supply of oxygen than others. Cells of the brsiin
may die within 4 to 6 minutes without oxygen. Once these cells die, they
are lost forever since they DO NOT regenerate. This could result in
permanent brain damage, paralysis, or death. Providing oxygen to these
living cells when there is an absence of breathing, or an absence of
breathing and circulation (heartbeat), is accompUshed by performing
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). This basic lifesaving technique
involves four steps in sequence: a prehminary assessment or evaluation
phase (Figure 2-1), opening the airway, rescue breathing, and chest
compression.

\

2-2. Assessment (Evaluation) Phase (081-831-1000 and 081-831-1042)

a Check for responsiveness (Figure 2-lA)— estabUsh whether
the casualty is conscious by gently shaking him and asking "Are you
O.K.?"

b. Call for help (Figure 2-lB).

2-1

FM 21-11

c. Position the unconscious casualty so that he is lying on his
back and on a firm surface (Figure 2-1 C) (081-831-1042).

WARNING (081-831-1042)

If the casualty is lying on his chest (prone
position), cautiously roll the casualty as a unit
so that his body does not twist (which may
further complicate a neck, back or spinal
injury).

HELP!

SOURCE: Copyright 1986. American Heart Association. Standards for CPR and ECC,
JAMA, Vol 255, No. 21, p. 2916.

Figure 2-1. Initial steps of cardiopulmonary resuscitation— The
Assessment Phase. Top, determining unresponsiveness; center, calling
for help; bottom, positioning the casualty (Illustrated A, B and C).

2-2

FM 21-11

(1) Straighten the casualty's legs. Take the casualty's arm
that is nearest to you and move it so that it is straight and above his
head. Repeat procedure for the other arm.

(2) Kneel beside the casualty with your knees near his
shoulders (leave space to roll his body) (Figure 2-lB). Place one hand
behind his head and neck for support. With your other hand, grasp the
casualty under his far arm (Figure 2-lC).

(3) Roll the casualty toward you using a steady and
even pull. His head and neck should stay in line with his back.

(4) Return the casualty's arms to his side. Straighten
his legs. Reposition yourself so that you are now kneeling at the level of
the casualty's shoulders. However, if a neck injury is suspected, and the
jaw thrust will be used, kneel at the casualty's head, looking toward his
feet.

2-3. Opening the Airway— Unconscious and Not Breathing
Casualty (081-831-1042)

The tongue is the single most common cause of an airway obstruction
(Figure 2-2). In most cases, the airway can be cleared by simply
extending the neck. This action pulls the tongue away from the air
passage in the throat (Figure 2-3).

CLOSED

\

Figure 2-2. Airway blocked by tongue.

2-3

FM 21-11

OPENED

Figure 2-3. Airway opened by extending neck.

i

a. Step ONE (081-831-1042). Call for help and then position
the casualty. Move (roll) the casualty onto his back (Figure 2-lC above).

CAUTION

Take care in moving a casualty with a
suspected neck or back injury. Moving an
injured neck or back may permanently injure
the spine.

NOTE (081-831-1042)

If foreign material or vomitus is visible in the
mouth, it should be removed, but do not spend
an excessive amount of time doing so.

6. Step TWO (081-831-1042). Open the airway using the jaw
thrust technique or head tilt/chin lift.

{

2-4

FM 21-11

►

NOTE

The head tilt/chin lift is an important
procedure in opening the airway; however, use
extreme care because excess force in
performing this maneuver may cause further
spinal injury. In a casualty with a suspected
neck injury or severe head trauma, the safest
approach to opening the airway is the jaw
thrust technique because in most cases it can
be accomplished without extending the neck.^

(1) Perform the jaw thrust technique. The jaw thrust
may be accomphshed by the rescuer grasping the angles of the casualty's
lower jaw and lifting with both hands, one on each side, displacing the
jaw forward and up (Figure 2-4). The rescuer's elbows should rest on the
surface on which the casualty is lying. If the lips close, the lower hp can
be retracted with the thumb. If mouth-to-mouth breathing is necessary,
close the nostrils by placing your cheek tightly against them. The head
should be carefully supported without tilting it backwards or turning it
■rom side to side. If this is unsuccessful, the head should be tilted back
very sHghtly.^ The jaw thrust is the safest first approach to opening the
airway of a casualty who has a suspected neck injury because in most
cases it can be accomphshed without extending the neck.

\

Figure 2-4. Jaw thrust technique of opening airway.

American Heart Association (AHA). Instructor's Manual for Basic Life Support (Dallas:
AHA, 1987), p. 37.

2. Ibid.

2-5

FM 21-11

I

(2) Perform the head tilt/chin lift technique (081-831-1042).
Place one hand on the casualty's forehead and apply firm, backward
pressure with the palm to tilt the head back. Place the fingertips of the
other hand under the bony part of the lower jaw and lift, bringing the
chin forward. The thumb should not be used to lift the chin (Figure 2-5).

NOTE

The fingers should not press deeply into the
soft tissue under the chin because the airway
may be obstructed.

SOURCE: Copyright 1986. American Heart Association. Standards for CPR and ECC,
JAMA. Vol 255, No. 21, p. 2916.

Figure 2-5. Head tilt/chin lift technique of opening airway.

c. Step THREE. Check for breathing (while maintaining an
airway). After estabUshing an open airway, it is important to maintain
that airway in an open position. Often the act of just opening and
maintaining the airway will allow the casualty to breathe properly. Once
the rescuer uses one of the techniques to open the airway (jaw thrust or
head tilt/chin lift), he should maintain that head position to keep the
airway open. Failure to maintain the open airway will prevent the
casualty from receiving an adequate supply of oxygen. Therefore, while
maintaining an open airway the rescuer should check for breathing by
observing the casualty's chest and performing the following action
within 3 to 5 seconds:

1

2-6

FM 21-11

(1) LOOK for the chest to rise and fall.

(2) LISTEN for air escaping during exhalation by placing
your ear near the casualty's mouth.

(3) FEEL for the flow of air on your cheek (see Figure 2-6).

(4) If the casualty does not resume breathing, give mouth-
to-mouth resuscitation.

NOTE

If the casualty resumes breathing, monitor and
maintain the open airway. If he continues to
breathe, he should be transported to a medical
treatment facility.

2-4. Rescue Breathing (Artificial Respiration)

CL If the casualty does not promptly resume adequate
spontaneous breathing after the airway is open, rescue breathing
(artificial respiration) must be started. Be calm! Think and act quickly!
The sooner you begin rescue breathing, the more likely you are to restore
the casualty's breathing. If you are in doubt whether the casualty is
breathing, give artificial respiration, since it can do no harm to a person
who is breathing. If the casualty is breathing, you can feel and see his
chest move. Also, if the casualty is breathing, you can feel and hear air
being expelled by putting your hand or ear close to his mouth and nose.

b. There are several methods of administering rescue breathing.
The mouth-to-mouth method is preferred; however, it cannot be used in
all situations. If the casualty has a severe jaw fracture or mouth wound
or his jaws are tightly closed by spasms, use the mouth-to-nose method.

2-5. Preliminary Steps— All Rescue Breathing Methods
(081-831-1042)

a. Step ONE. Estabhsh unresponsiveness. Call for help. Turn
or position the casualty.

6. Step TWO. Open the airway.

c. Step THREE. Check for breathing by placing your ear over
the casualty's mouth and nose, and looking toward his chest:

2-7

FM 21-11

(1) Look for rise and fall of the casualty's chest (Figure 2-6).

(2) Listen for sounds of breathing,

(3) Feel for breath on the side of your face. If the chest does
not rise and fall and no air is exhaled, then the casualty is breathless (not
breathing). (This evaluation procedure should take only 3 to 5 seconds.)
Perform rescue breathing if the casualty is not breathing.

i

NOTE

Although the rescuer may notice that the
casualty is making respiratory efforts, the
airway may still be obstructed and opening the
airway may be all that is needed. If the
casualty resumes breathing, the rescuer should
continue to help maintain an open airway.

{

Figure 2-6. Check for breathing.

2-6. Mouth-to-Mouth Method (081-831-1042)

In this method of rescue breathing, you inflate the casualty's lungs with
air from your lungs. This can be accomplished by blowing air into the
person's mouth. The mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing method is
performed as follows:

a. Preliminary Steps.
2-8

{

FM 21-11

)

(1) Step ONE (081-831-1042). If the casualty is not
breathing, place your hand on his forehead, and pinch his nostrils together
with the thumb and index finger of this same hand. Let this same hand exert
pressure on his forehead to maintain the backward head tilt and maintain an
open airway. With your other hand, keep your fingertips on the bony part of
the lower jaw near the chin and lift (Figure 2-7).

Figure 2-7. Head tilt/chin lift.

NOTE

If you suspect the casualty has a neck injury
and you are using the jaw thrust technique,
close the nostrils by placing your cheek tightly
against them.^

\

(2) Step TWO (081-831-1042). Take a deep breath and
place your mouth (in an airtight seal) around the casualty's mouth
(Figure 2-8). (If the injured person is small, cover both his nose and mouth
with your mouth, sealing your Hps against the skin of his face.)

3. Ibid.

2-9

FM 21-11

<

Figure 2-8. Rescue breathing.

(3) Step THREE (081 S3 1-1 042). Blow tv/o fuU breaths
into the casualty's mouth (1 to 1 1/2 seconds per breath), taking a breath
of fresh air each time before you blow. Watch out of the corner of your eye
for the casualty's chest to rise. If the chest rises, sufficient air is getting
into the casualty's lungs. Therefore, proceed as described in step FOUR
below. If the chest does not rise, do the following (a, b, and c below) and
then attempt to ventilate again.

(a) Take corrective action immediately by
reestablishing the airway. Make sure that air is not leaking from around
your mouth or out of the casualty's pinched nose.

(b) Reattempt to ventilate.

(c) If chest still does not rise, take the necessary
action to open an obstructed airway (paragraph 2-14).

NOTE

If the initial attempt to ventilate the casualty
is unsuccessful, reposition the casualty's head
and repeat rescue breathing. Improper chin
and head positioning is the most common
cause of difficulty with ventilation. If the
casualty cannot be ventilated after
repositioning the head, proceed with foreign-
body airway obstruction maneuvers (see Open
an Obstructed Airway, paragraph 2-14).'*

4.JAMA. p. 2917.

2-10

<

i

FM 21-11

(4) Step FOUR (081-831-1042). After giving two breaths
which cause the chest to rise, attempt to locate a pulse on the casualty.
Feel for a pulse on the side of the casualty's neck closest to you by
placing the first two fingers (index and middle fingers) of your hand on
the groove beside the casualty's Adam's apple (carotid pulse) (Figure
2-9). (Your thumb should not be used for pulse taking because you may
confuse your pulse beat with that of the casualty.) Maintain the airway
by keeping your other hand on the casualty's forehead. AUow 5 to 10
seconds to determine if there is a pulse.

Figure 2-9. Placement of fingers to detect pulse.

(a) If a pulse is found and the casualty is breathing
—STOP; allow the casualty to breathe on his own. If possible, keep him
warm and comfortable.

(b) If a pulse is found and the casualty is not
breathing, continue rescue breathing.

(c) If a pulse is not found and the casualty is not
breathing, perform CPR. No pulse with no breathing means the casualty
is in cardiac arrest. Seek immediate medical help. See paragraphs 2-10
and 2-11 for CPR procedure.

NOTE

CPR should be performed only by quahfied
personnel.

b. Rescue Breathing (mouth-to-mouth resuscitation)
(081-831-1042). Rescue breathing (mouth-to-mouth or mouth-to-nose

2-11

FM 21-11

resuscitation) is performed at the rate of about one breath every 5
seconds (12 breaths per minute) with rechecks for pulse and breathing
after every 12 breaths. Rechecks can be accomplished in 3 to 5 seconds.
See steps ONE through SEVEN (below) for specifics.

NOTE

Seek help (medical aid), if not done previously.

(1) Step ONE. If the casualty is not breathing, pinch his
nostrils together with the thumb and index finger of the hand on his
forehead and let this same hand exert pressure on the forehead to
maintain the backward head tilt (Figure 2-7).

(2) Step TWO. Take a deep breath and place your mouth
(in an airtight seal) around the casualty's mouth (Figure 2-8).

(3) Step THREE. Blow a quick breath into the casualty's
mouth forcefully to cause his chest to rise. If the casualty's chest rises,
sufficient air is getting into his lungs.

(4) Step FOUR. When the casualty's chest rises, remove
your mouth from his mouth and Usten for the return of air from his lungs
(exhalation),

(5) Step FIVE. Repeat this procedure (mouth-to-mouth
resuscitation) at a rate of one breath every 5 seconds to achieve 12
breaths per minute. Use the following count: "one, one-thousand; two,
one-thousand; three, one-thousand; four, one-thousand; BREATH; one,
one-thousand;" and so forth. To achieve a rate of one breath every 5
seconds, the breath must be given on the fifth count.

(6) Step SIX. Feel for a pulse after every 12th breath.
This check should take about 3 to 5 seconds. If a pulse beat is not
detected, cardiopulmonary resuscitation must be performed immediately
by qualified personnel.

(7) Step SEVEN. Continue rescue breathing until the
casualty starts to breathe on his own, until you are relieved by another
person, or until you are too tired to continue. Monitor pulse and return of
spontaneous breathing after every few minutes of rescue breathing. If
spontaneous breathing returns, monitor the casualty closely. Maintain
an open airway and be prepared to resume rescue breathing if necessary.

2-12

(

FM 21-11

2-7. Mouth-to-Nose Method

Use this method if you cannot perform mouth-to-mouth rescue breathing
because the casualty has a severe jaw fracture or mouth wound or his
jaws are tightly closed by spasms. The mouth-to-nose method is
performed in the same way as the mouth-to-mouth method except that
you blow into the nose while you hold the lips closed with one hand at the
chin. You then remove your mouth to allow the casualty to exhale
passively. It may be necessary to sepsirate the casualty's lips to allow the
air to escape during exhalation.

2-8. Heartbeat

If a casualty's heart stops beating, you must immediately give external
chest compression, formerly called closed-chest heart massage, as well as
rescue breathing. SECONDS COUNT! Stoppage of the heart is soon
followed by cessation of respiration unless it has occurred first. Be cahn!
Think and act! When a casualty's heart has stopped, there is no pulse at
all; the person is unconscious and Ump, and the pupils of his eyes are open
wide. When evaluating a casualty or when performing the preliminary
steps of rescue breathing, feel for a pulse. If you DO NOT detect a pulse
immediately, waste no time checking further; start external chest
compression and rescue breathing at once!

2-9. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

The combination of external chest compression and rescue breathing is
called cardiopulmonary resuscitation. External chest compression is the
rhythmical compression of the heart without surgically opening the
chest. It is designed to provide artificial circulation in order to restore the
heartbeat and keep blood flowing to the brain and other organs until the
heart begins to beat normally again. It is not the same as open-chest
heart massage in which the chest wall is opened and the heart itself is
compressed directly by hand. The heart is located between the
breastbone and the spine (Figure 2-10). Pressure on the breastbone
pushes the heart against the spine, thus forcing the blood out of the heart
into the arteries. Release of pressure allows the heart to refill with blood.

NOTE

CPR should be performed only by quaUfied
personnel.

2-13

FM 21-11

RIBS

BREASTBONE
HEART

RIBS

XIPHOID PROCESS

SPINE

Figure 2-10. Rib cage and heart.

a. Preliminary Steps. Since external chest compression always
must be combined with rescue breathing, it is preferable to have two rescuers
(Appendix D). CPR, however, should be performed only by qualified
personnel. One person positions himself on one side of the casualty at his
head, keeps the casualty's head tilted back to maintain an open airway, and
administers artificial respiration. If you must administer these steps alone,
alternate these methods as described in paragraph 2-10.

(1) Prepare the casualty for the mouth-to-mouth method of
rescue breathing (paragraph 2-6). The casualty always must be in the
horizontal position when external chest compression is performed. There
is inadequate blood flow to the brain when the body is in an upright
position during heart arrest even though external chest compression is
properly performed. The surface on which the casualty is placed MUST
BE SOLID. The floor or the ground is adequate. A bed or couch is too
flexible. Elevate the legs about 6 inches while keeping the rest of the
body horizontal. This will help the return of blood to the heart.

(2) Position yourself close to the casualty's side and locate
the site on his chest where compressions will be made. Locate the lower
edge of the casualty's ribs with your fingers (Figure 2-11). Run the
fingers up along the rib cage to the notch where the ribs meet the

2-14

FM 21-11

breastbone at the center of the lower chest (Figure 2-12). Place the middle
finger on the notch and the index finger next to the middle finger on the
lower end of the breastbone. Place the heel of the other hand on the lower
half of the breastbone next to the two fingers (Figure 2-13). Remove the
fingers from the notch and place that hand on top of the positioned hand,
extending or interlacing the fingers (Figure 2-14).

Figure 2-11. Lower edge of ribs.

Figure 2-12. Center of lower chest.

2-15

FM 21-11

i

Figure 2-13. Fingers and hand on lower end of breastbone.

Figure 2-14. Positioning of hands.

NOTE

The fingers may be either extended or interlaced
but must be kept off the chest.

b. Procedure.

(1) With your hands in the correct position, straighten and
lock your elbows with your shoulders directly above your hands (Figurej
2-15) without bending your elbows, rocking, or allowing your shoulders to'
sag. Apply enough pressure to depress the breastbone 1 1/2 to 2 inches in
an average size adult (Figure 2-16).

2-16

FM 21-11

"it^

Figure 2-15. Rescuer giving chest compressions.

1 1/2 to 2'

Figure 2-16. Breastbone depressed 1 1/2 to 2 inches.

(2) Release the pressure immediately. The heel of your hand
should remain lightly in contact with the chest. However, pressure on the
breastbone should be completely released so that it returns to its normal
resting position between compressions.

(3) The time allowed for release should be equal to the time
required for compression. DO NOT pause between compressions.

NOTE

Never interrupt CPR for more than 7 seconds
(except in special circumstances).

2-17

FM 21-11

NOTE

CPR should be performed only by qualified
personnel.

2-10. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation—One Rescuer

a. When there is only one rescuer (single), that rescuer must
perform CPR using a 15 to 2 ratio (Figure 2-17). This ratio consists of 15
heart compressions followed by 2 quick but full lung inflations. To make
up the time used for inflating the lungs, the rescuer must perform each
series of 15 heart compressions at the rate of 80 to 100 compressions per
minute. He counts aloud as follows: "one and, two and, three and," and
so on consecutively to ''fifteen." After a count of "fifteen, " the rescuer
quickly positions himself near the casualty's head. He then places his
hand on the casualty's forehead and pinches the nostrils together with
the thumb and index finger of this same hand. This hand exerts pressure
on the forehead and maintains the backward head tilt and also maintains
the open airway. The rescuer then blows two deep breaths into the
casualty's airway in rapid succession (within a period of 5 to 6 seconds).
The rescuer repeats the cycle (15:2) four times. After the rescuer gives the
two quick, full breaths of the last cycle, he places his ear over the
casualty's mouth and nose, looks toward the casualty's chest and
stomach, and listens and feels to determine whether breathing has
resumed (LOOK, LISTEN, and FEEL). At the same time, he checks the
neck (carotid) pulse to determine if spontaneous heartbeat has returned.

2-18

FM 21-11

One-Rescuer CPR Decision Tree

I ENTER j

ASSESSMENT

DETERMINE

UNRESPONSIVENESS

HCALL FOR HELP L
AND ^^

POSITION VICTIM I

OPEN
AIRWAY

MAINTAIN
OPEN
AIRWAY

ASSESSMENT

DETERMINE

BREATHLESSNESS

YES

REPOSITION

HEAD
REATTEMPT
VENTILATION

1

BREATHE
2 TIMES

ABDOMINAL THRUSTS

(HEIMLICH MANEUVER)

FINGER SWEEP

BREATHE

ABDOMINAL

THRUSTS

(HEIMLICH

MANEUVER)

FINGER SWEEP

BREATHE

0

©

ASSESSMENT

DETERMINE

PULSELESSNESS

ACTIVATE EMS

CHEST

COMPRESSIONS

AND RESCUE

BREATHING

15 2 RATIO

CONTINUE

RESCUE BREATHING

ONCE EVERY

5 SECONDS

FOR ADULTS.

MONITOR PULSE

PULSE AND

BREATHING

CHECK AFTER

FOUR CYCLES.

THEN EVERY

FEW MINUTES

SOURCE: Copyright. American Heart Association. Instructor's Manual for Basic Life
Support. Dallas: American Heart Association, 1987.

Figure 2-17. One rescuer method of CPR.

2-19

FM 21-11

b. If breathing is absent but the pulse has returned, the rescuer
continues with rescue breathing.

c. If breathing and pulse are still absent, the rescuer gives the
casualty two full lung inflations (breaths), then resumes the CPR cycle
using the same cycle of 15 compressions followed by two breaths.

NOTE

The sequence is a cycle of 15 compressions and
2 full lung inflations repeated four times; a
5-second pulse check; 2 full lung inflations;
then a resumption of cycles of 15 compressions
followed by two full lung inflations. When
continuing one (single) rescuer CPR, stop and
check every 3 to 5 minutes thereafter for
return of spontaneous breathing and pulse.

d. The rescuer continues CPR until the casualty starts to
breathe on his own and his pulse is detected, or until the rescuer is
relieved by another person, or until he is too tired to continue. If the
rescuer detects a pulse, he stops CPR; however, rescue breathing may
still be necessary, see paragraphs 2-4 through 2-7 above.

2-11. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation — More than One Rescuer

a. When another rescuer is available at the scene, the second
rescuer should perform one-rescuer CPR when the first rescuer, who
initiated CPR, becomes fatigued.

b. The following steps should be followed when a second rescuer
is available:

• The second rescuer should identify himself as quahfied to
perform CPR and willing to help.

• The first rescuer stops CPR after two ventilations.

• The second rescuer kneels down and checks for pulse for
5 seconds.

• If there is no pulse, the second rescuer gives two breaths.

• The second rescuer begins external chest compressions
at the rate recommended for one-man CPR (80 to 100 compressions per
minute) 15 compressions: 2 ventilations.

2-20

FM 21-11

• The first rescuer watches for the chest to rise and checks
for the pulse to monitor effectiveness of second rescuer's compressions
and ventilations.

2-12. Airway Obstructions

In order for oxygen from the air to flow to and from the lungs, the upper
airway must be unobstructed.

a. Upper airway obstructions often occur because—

(1) The casualty's tongue falls back into his throat while he
is unconscious as a result of injury, cardiopulmonary arrest, and so forth .
(The tongue falls back and obstructs, it is not swallowed.)

(2) Foreign bodies become lodged in the throat. These
obstructions usually occur while eating (meat most commonly causes
obstructions). Choking on food is associated with—

shewed food.

• Attempting to swallow large pieces of poorly

• Drinking alcohol.

• Slipping dentures.

(3) The contents of the stomach are regurgitated and may
block the airway.

(4) Blood clots may form as a result of head and facial injuries.

b. Upper airway obstructions may be prevented by taking the
following precautions:

(1) Cut food into small pieces and take care to chew slowly
and thoroughly.

(2) Avoid laughing and talking when chewing and swallowing.

(3) Restrict alcohol while eating meals.

r

(4) Keep food and foreign objects from children while they
alk, run, or play.

(5) Consider the correct positioning/maintenance of the
open airway for the injured or unconscious casualty.

2-21

FM 21-11

c. Upper airway obstruction may cause either partial or
complete airway blockage.

(1) Partial airway obstruction. The casualty may still have
an air exchange. A good air exchange means that the casualty can cough
forcefully, though he may be wheezing between coughs. You, the rescuer,
should not interfere, and should encourage the casualty to cough up the
object on his own. A poor air exchange may be indicated by weak
coughing with a high pitched noise between coughs. Additionally, the
casualty may show signs of shock {for example, paleness of the skin,
bluish tint around the lips or fingernail beds) indicating a need for
oxygen. You should assist the casualty and treat him as though he had a
complete obstruction.

(2) Complete airway obstruction. A complete obstruction
(no air exchange) is indicated if the casualty cannot speak, breathe, or
cough at all. He may be clutching his neck and moving erratically. In ar
unconscious casualty a complete obstruction is also indicated if after
opening his airway you cannot ventilate him.

2-13. Opening the Obstructed Airway— Conscious Casualty
(081-831-1003)

Clearing a conscious casualty's airway obstruction can be performec
with the casualty either standing or sitting, and by following a relativelj
simple procedure.

WARNING

Once an obstructed airway occurs, the brain
will develop an oxygen deficiency resulting in
unconsciousness. Death will follow rapidly if
prompt action is not taken.

a Step ONE. Ask the casualty if he can speak or if he ij
choking. Check for the universal choking sign (Figure 2-18).

2-22

FM 21-11

Figure 2-18. Universal sign of choking.

b. Step TWO. If the casualty can speak, encourage him to
attempt to cough; the casualty still has a good air exchange. If he is able
|to speak or cough effectively, DO NOT interfere with his attempts to
expel the obstruction.

c. Step THREE. Listen for high pitched sounds when the
casualty breathes or coughs (poor air exchange). If there is poor air
exchange or no breathing, CALL for HELP and immediately deliver
manual thrusts (either an abdominal or chest thrust).

NOTE

The manual thrust with the hands centered
between the waist and the rib cage is called an
abdominal thrust (or Heimhch maneuver). The
chest thrust (the hands are centered in the
middle of the breastbone) is used only for an
individual in the advanced stages of
pregnancy, in the markedly obese casualty, or
if there is a significant abdominal wound.

|below:

• Apply ABDOMINAL THRUSTS using the procedures

o Stand behind the casualty and wrap your arms

around his waist.

2-23

FM 21-11

(

o Make a fist with one hand and grasp it with the
other. The thumb side of your fist should be against the casualty's
abdomen, in the midhne and slightly above the casualty's navel, but well
below the tip of the breastbone (Figure 2-19).

Figure 2-19. Anatomical view of abdominal thrust procedure.

o Press the fists into the abdomen with a quid
backward and upward thrust (Figure 2-20).

Figure 2-20. Profile view of abdominal thrust.

2-24

FM 21-11

o Each thrust should be a separate and distinct
movement.

NOTE

It may be necessary to repeat the thrust 6 to
10 times to clear the airway. Perform
abdominal thrusts until the obstruction is
expelled or the casualty becomes unconscious.

o If the casualty becomes unconscious, call for help as
you proceed with steps to open the airway and perform rescue breathing.
(See task 081-831-1042, Perform Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation.)

• Applying CHEST THRUSTS. An alternate technique
to the abdominal thrust is the chest thrust. This technique is useful when
the casualty has an abdominal wound, when the casualty is pregnant, or
when the casualty is so large that you cannot wrap your arms around the
abdomen. To apply chest thrusts with casualty sitting or standing:

} o Stand behind the casualty and wrap your arms

around his chest with your arms under his armpits.

o Make a fist with one hand and place the thumb side
of the fist in the middle of the breastbone (take care to avoid the tip of the
breastbone and the margins of the ribs).

o Grasp the fist with the other hand and exert thrusts
(Figure 2-21).

)

Figure 2-21. Profile view of chest thrust.

2-25

FM 21-11

I

o Each thrust should be dehvered slowly, distinctly,
and with the intent of relieving the obstruction.

o Perform chest thrusts until the obstruction is
expelled or the casualty becomes unconscious.

o If the casualty becomes unconscious, call for help as
you proceed with steps to open the airway and perform rescue breathing.
(See task 081-831-1042, Perform Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation.)

2-14. Open an Obstructed Airway— Casualty Lying or
Unconscious (081-831-1042)

The following procedures are used to expel an airway obstruction in a
casualty who is lying down, who becomes unconscious, or is found
unconscious (the cause unknown):

• If a conscious casualty who is choking becomes
unconscious, call for help, open the airway, perform a finger sweep, an
attempt rescue breathing (paragraphs 2-2 through 2-4). If you still canno'
administer rescue breathing due to an airway blockage, then remove the
airway obstruction using the procedures in steps a through e below.

I

• If a casualty is unconscious when you find him (the cause
unknown), assess or evaluate the situation, caU for help, position the
casualty on his back, open the airway, establish breathlessness, and
attempt to perform rescue breathing (paragraphs 2-2 through 2-7).

a. Open the airway and attempt rescue breathing. See task
081-831-1042, Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation.

b. If still unable to ventilate the casualty, perform 6 to 10
manual (abdominal or chest) thrusts. (Note that the abdominal thrusts
are used when casualty does not have abdominal wounds; is not pregnant
or extremely overweight.) To perform the abdominal thrusts:

(1) Kneel astride the casualty's thighs (Figure 2-22).

2-26

FM 21-11

i

Figure 2-22. Abdominal thrust on unconscious casualty.

(2) Place the heel of one hand against the casualty's
abdomen (in the midline slightly above the navel but well below the tip of
the breastbone). Place your other hand on top of the first one. Point your
ngers toward the casualty's head.

I

(3) Press into the casualty's abdomen with a quick, forward
and upward thrust. You can use your body weight to perform the
maneuver. Deliver each thrust slowly and distinctly.

(4) Repeat the sequence of abdominal thrusts, finger sweep,
and rescue breathing (attempt to ventilate) as long as necessary to
remove the object from the obstructed airway. See paragraph d below.

(5) If the casualty's chest rises, proceed to feeling for pulse.

c. Apply chest thrusts. (Note that the chest thrust technique is
an alternate method that is used when the casualty has an abdominal
wound, when the casualty is so large that you cannot wrap your arms
around the abdomen, or when the casualty is pregnant.) To perform the
chest thrusts:

(1) Place the unconscious casualty on his back, face up, and
open his mouth. Kneel close to the side of the casualty's body.

• Locate the lower edge of the casualty's ribs with
your fingers. Run the fingers up along the rib cage to the notch (Figure
23A).

»

• Place the middle finger on the notch and the index
finger next to the middle finger on the lower edge of the breastbone. Place

2-27

FM 21-11

C

the heel of the other hand on the lower half of the breastbone next to the
two fingers (Figure 2-23B).

• Remove the fingers from the notch and place that
hand on top of the positioned hand on the breastbone, extending or
interlocking the fingers (Figure 2-23C).

• Straighten and lock your elbows with your
shoulders directly above your hands without bending the elbows,
rocking, or aUowing the shoulders to sag. Apply enough pressure to
depress the breastbone 1 1/2 to 2 inches, then release the pressure
completely (Figure 2-23D). Do this 6 to 10 times. Each thrust should be
delivered slowly and distinctly. See Figure 2-24 for another view of the
breastbone being depressed.

Figure 2-23. Hand placement for chest thrust (Illustrated A-D).
2-28

\

FM 21-11

i

2 to 2'

Figure 2-24. Breastbone depressed 1 1/2 to 2 inches.

(2) Repeat the sequence of chest thrust, finger sweep, and
rescue breathing as long as necessary to clear the object from the
obstructed airway. See paragraph d below.

mlse.

(3) If the casualty's chest rises, proceed to feeHng for his

d. Finger Sweep. If you still cannot administer rescue breathing
due to an airway obstruction, then remove the airway obstruction using
the procedures in steps (1) and (2) below.

(1) Place the casualty on his back, face up, turn the
unconscious casualty as a unit, and call out for help.

(2) Perform finger sweep, keep casualty face up, use tongue-
jaw lift to open mouth.

• Open the casualty's mouth by grasping both his
tongue and lower jaw between your thumb and fingers and lifting
(tongue-jaw lift) (Figure 2-25). If you are unable to open his mouth, cross
your fingers and thumb (crossed-finger method) and push his teeth apart
(Figure 2-26) by pressing your thumb against his upper teeth and
pressing your finger against his lower teeth.

i

2-29

FM 21-11

Figure 2-25. Opening casualty's mouth (tongue-jaw lift).

IKM'

Figure 2-26. Opening casualty's mouth (crossed- finger method).

• Insert the index finger of the other hand down
along the inside of his cheek to the base of the tongue. Use a hooking^
motion from the side of the mouth toward the center to dislodge tht
foreign body (Figure 2-27).

2-30

FM 21-11

►

Figure 2-27. Using finger to dislodge foreign body.

I

WARNING

Take care not to force the object deeper into
the airway by pushing it with the finger.

Section 11. STOP THE BLEEDING AND PROTECT THE WOUND

':

2-15. Clothing (081-831-1016)

In evaluating the casualty for location, type, and size of the wound or
injury, cut or tear his clothing and carefully expose the entire area of the
wound. This procedure is necessary to avoid further contamination.
Clothing stuck to the wound should be left in place to avoid further
injury. DO NOT touch the wound; keep it as clean as possible.

WARNING (081-831-1016)

DO NOT REMOVE protective clothing in a
chemical environment. Apply dressings over
the protective clothing.

2-31

FM 21-11

r*

2-16. Entrance and Exit Wounds

Before applying the dressing, carefully examine the casualty to
determine if there is more than one wound. A missile may have entered at
one point and exited at another point. The EXIT wound is usually
LARGER than the entrance wound.

WARNING

Casualty should be continually monitored for
development of conditions which may require
the performance of necessary basic lifesaving
measures, such as clearing the airway and
mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. All open (or
penetrating) wounds should be checked for a
point of entry and exit and treated
accordingly.

WARNING

If the missile lodges in the body (fails to exit),
DO NOT attempt to remove it or probe the
wound. Apply a dressing. If there is an object
extending from (impaled in) the wound, DO
NOT remove the object. Apply a dressing
around the object and use additional
improvised bulky materials/dressings (use the
cleanest material available) to build up the area
around the object. Apply a supporting
bandage over the bulky materials to hold them
in place.

2-17. Field Dressing (081-831-1016)

a. Use the casualty's field dressing; remove it from the wrapper
and grasp the tails of the dressing with both hands (Figure 2-28).

2-32

J

FM 21-11

►

Figure 2-28. Grasping tails of dressing with both hands.

WARNING

DO NOT touch the white (sterUe) side of the
dressing, and DO NOT allow the white (sterile)
side of the dressing to come in contact with
any surface other than the wound.

b. Hold the dressing directly over the wound with the white side
down. Pull the dressing open (Figure 2-29) and place it directly over the
wound (Figure 2-30).

►

Figure 2-29. Pulling dressing open.

2-33

FM 21-11

W^A*

f

_^^^^^

Figure 2-30. Placing dressing directly on wound.

c. Hold the dressing in place with one hand. Use the other hand
to wrap one of the tails around the injured part, covering about one-half^ ,
of the dressing (Figure 2-31). Leave enough of the tail for a knot. If theM
casualty is able, he may assist by holding the dressing in place. ^ I

Figure 2-31. Wrapping tail of dressing around injured part.

d. Wrap the other tail in the opposite direction until the!
remainder of the dressing is covered. The tails should seal the sides of the
dressing to keep foreign material from getting under it.

2-34

FM 21-11

e. Tie the tails into a nonslip knot over the outer edge of the
dressing (Figure 2-32). DO NOT TIE THE KNOT OVER THE WOUND.

In order to allow blood to flow to the rest of an injured Umb, tie the
dressing firmly enough to prevent it from slipping but without causing a
tourniquet-like effect; that is, the skin beyond the injury becomes cool,
blue, or numb.

Figure 2-32. Tails tied into nonslip knot.

2-18. Manual Pressure (081-831-1016)

a. If bleeding continues after applying the sterile field dressing,
direct manual pressure may be used to help control bleeding. Apply such
pressure by placing a hand on the dressing and exerting firm pressure for
5 to 10 minutes (Figure 2-33). The casualty may be asked to do this
himself if he is conscious and can follow instructions.

)

Figure 2-33. Direct manual pressure applied.

2-35

FM 21-11

f

b. Elevate an injured limb slightly above the level of the heart
to reduce the bleeding (Figure 2-34).

.<^

Figure 2-34. Injured limb elevated.

WARNING

DO NOT elevate a suspected fractured hmb
unless it has been properly spUnted. (To splint
a fracture before elevating, see task
081-831-1034, Splint a Suspected Fracture.)

c. If the bleeding stops, check and treat for shock. If the
bleeding continues, apply a pressure dressing.

2-19. Pressure Dressing (081-831-1016)

Pressure dressings aid in blood clotting and compress the open blood
vessel. If bleeding continues after the application of a field dressing,
manual pressure, and elevation, then a pressure dressing must be apphed
as follows:

a. Place a wad of padding on top of the field dressing, directly
over the wound (Figure 2-35). Keep injured extremity elevated.

w

2 36

FM 21-11

Figure 2-35. Wad of padding on top of field dressing.

NOTE

Improvised bandages may be made from strips
of cloth. These strips may be made from
T-shirts, socks, or other garments.

b. Place an improvised dressing (or cravat, if available) over the
wad of padding (Figure 2-36). Wrap the ends tightly around the injured
limb, covering the previously placed field dressing (Figure 2-37).

Figure 2-36. Improvised dressing over wad of padding.

2-37

FM 21-11

i

;S>VW

Figure 2-37. Ends of improvised dressing wrapped tightly around limb.

c. Tie the ends together in a nonslip knot, directly over the I
wound site (Figure 2-38). DO NOT tie so tightly that it has a tourniquet-
like effect. If bleeding continues and all other measures have failed, or if
the limb is severed, then apply a tourniquet. Use the tourniquet as a
LAST RESORT. When the bleeding stops, check and treat for shock.

I

Figure 2-38. Ends of improvised dressing tied together in nonslip knot.
2-38

FM 21-11

►

NOTE

Wounded extremities should be checked
periodically for adequate circulation. The
dressing must be loosened if the extremity
becomes cool, blue or numb.

2-20. Tourniquet (081-831-1017)

A soldier whose arm or leg has been completely amputated may not be
bleeding when first discovered, but a tourniquet should be applied
anyway. This absence of bleeding is due to the body's normal defenses
(contraction of blood vessels) as a result of the amputation, but after a
period of time bleeding will start as the blood vessels relax. Bleeding
from a major artery of the thigh, lower leg, or arm and bleeding from
multiple arteries (which occurs in a traumatic amputation) may prove to
be beyond control by manual pressure. If the pressure dressing under
firm hand pressure becomes soaked with blood and the wound continues
to bleed, apply a tourniquet. A tourniquet is a constricting band placed
around an arm or leg to control bleeding.

WARNING

Casualty should be continually monitored for
development of conditions which may require
the performance of necessary basic life-saving
measures, such as: clearing the airway,
performing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation,
preventing shock, and/or bleeding control. All
open (or penetrating) wounds should be
checked for a point of entry or exit and treated
accordingly.

)

The tourniquet should not be used unless a pressure dressing has failed to
stop the bleeding or an arm or leg has been cut off. Its use will rarely be
necessary and should be avoided if possible. On occasion, tourniquets
have injured blood vessels and nerves. If left in place too long, a
tourniquet can cause loss of an arm or leg. Once applied, it must stay in
place, and the casualty must be taken to the nearest medical treatment
facility as soon as possible. DO NOT loosen or release a tourniquet after
it has been applied and the bleeding has stopped.

a. Improvising a Tourniquet (081-831-1017). In the absence of a
specially designed tourniquet, a tourniquet may be made from a strong,

2-39

FM 21-11

II

pliable material, such as gauze or muslin bandages, clothing, or kerchiefs.
An improvised tourniquet is used with a rigid stick-like object. To
minimize skin damage, ensure that the improvised tourniquet is at least 2
inches wide.

WARNING

The tourniquet must be easily identified or
easily seen.

WARNING

DO NOT use wire or shoestring for a
tourniquet band.

WARNING

A tourniquet is only used on arm(s) or leg(s)
where there is danger of loss of casualty's life.

i

b. Placing the Improvised Tourniquet (081-831-1017).

(1) Place the tourniquet around the limb, between the
wound and the body trunk (or between the wound and the heart). Place
the tourniquet 2 to 4 inches from the edge of the wound site (Figure 2-39).
Never place it directly over a wound or fracture or directly on a joint
(wrist, elbow, or knee). For wounds just below a joint, place the
tourniquet just above and as close to the joint as possible.

<

Figure 2-39. Tourniquet 2 to 4 inches above wound.

2-40

FM 21-11

►

(2) The tourniquet should have padding underneath. If
possible, place the tourniquet over the smoothed sleeve or trouser leg to
prevent the skin from being pinched or twisted. If the tourniquet is long
enough, wrap it around the limb several times, keeping the material as
flat as possible. Damaging the skin may deprive the surgeon of skin
required to cover an amputation. Protection of the skin also reduces pain.

c. Applying the Tourniquet (081-831-1017).

(1) Tie a half -knot. (A half -knot is the same as the first part
of tying a shoe lace.)

(2) Place a stick (or similar rigid object) on top of the half-
knot (Figure 2-40).

Figure 2-40. Rigid object on top of half-knot.

(3) Tie a full knot over the stick (Figure 2-41).

Figure 2-41. Full knot over rigid object.

2-41

FM 21-11

(4) Twist the stick (Figure 2-42) until the tourniquet is tight
around the Hmb and/or the bright red bleeding has stopped. In the case of
amputation, dark oozing blood may continue for a short time. This is the
blood trapped in the area between the wound and tourniquet.

TWIST THE STICK
ALIGN THE STICK LENGTHWISE WITH THE LIMB

Figure 2-42. Stick twisted.

(5) Fasten the tourniquet to the limb by looping the free
ends of the tourniquet over the ends of the stick. Then bring the ends
around the limb to prevent the stick from loosening. Tie them together
under the hmb (Figure 2-43A and B).

i

Figure 2-43. Free ends looped (Illustrated A and B).

2-42

FM 21-11

>

Figure 2-43. Continued.

NOTE (081-831-1017)

Other methods of securing the stick may be
used as long as the stick does not unwind and
no further injury results.

NOTE

If possible, save and transport any severed
(amputated) limbs or body parts with (but out
of sight of) the casualty.

(6) DO NOT cover the tourniquet— you should leave it in
full view. If the hmb is missing (total amputation), apply a dressing to
the stump.

(7) Mark the casualty's forehead, if possible, with a "T" to
indicate a tourniquet has been applied. If necessary, use the casualty's
blood to make this mark.

(8) Check and treat for shock.

(9) Seek medical aid.

CAUTION (081-831-1017)

DO NOT LOOSEN OR RELEASE THE
TOURNIQUET ONCE IT HAS BEEN
APPLIED BECAUSE IT COULD ENHANCE
THE PROBABILITY OF SHOCK.

2-43

FM 21-11

i

i

Section III. CHECK AND TREAT FOR SHOCK

2-21. Causes and Effects

a Shock may be caused by severe or minor trauma to the body.
It usually is the result of—

• Significant loss of blood.

• Heart failure.

• Dehydration.

• Severe and painful blows to the body.

• Severe burns of the body.

• Severe wound infections.

• Severe allergic reactions to drugs, foods, insect stings,
and snakebites.

b. Shock stuns and weakens the body. When the normal blood
flow in the body is upset, death can result. Early identification and
proper treatment may save the casualty's hfe.

c. See FM 8-230 for further information and details on specific
types of shock and treatment.

2-22. Signs/Symptoms (081-831-1000)

Examine the casualty to see if he has any of the following
signs/symptoms:

• Sweaty but cool skin (clammy skin).

• Paleness of skin.

• Restlessness, nervousness.

• Thirst.

• Loss of blood (bleeding). , H

• Confusion (or loss of awareness).

2-44

FM 21-11

)

• Faster-than-normal breathing rate.

• Blotchy or bluish skin (especially around the mouth and lips).

• Nausea and/or vomiting.

2-23. Treatment/Prevention (081-831-1005)

In the field, the procedures to treat shock are identical to procedures that
would be performed to prevent shock. When treating a casualty, assume
that shock is present or will occur shortly. By waiting until actual
signs/symptoms of shock are noticeable, the rescuer may jeopardize the
casualty's life.

a. Position the Casualty. (DO NOT move the casualty or his
limbs if suspected fractures have not been splinted. See Chapter 4 for
details.)

(1) Move the casualty to cover, if cover is available and the
situation permits.

(2) Lay the casualty on his back.

NOTE

A casualty in shock after suffering a heart
attack, chest wound, or breathing difficulty,
may breathe easier in a sitting position. If this
is the case, allow him to sit upright, but
monitor carefully in case his condition
worsens.

(3) Elevate the casualty's feet higher than the level of his
heart. Use a stable object (a box, field pack, or rolled up clothing) so that
his feet will not slip off (Figure 2-44).

WARNING

DO NOT elevate legs if the casualty has an
unsplinted broken leg, head injury, or
abdominal injury. (See task 081-831-1034,
Splint a Suspected Fracture, and task
081-831-1025, Apply a Dressing to an Open
Abdominal Wound.)

2-45

FM 21-11

^^ <tulm(i>u''i'*

i

Figure 2-44. Clothing loosened and feet elevated.

WARNING (081-831-1005)

Check casualty for leg fracture(s) and splint, if
necessary, before elevating his feet. For a
casualty with an abdominal wound, place
knees in an upright (flexed) position.

i

be binding.

(4) Loosen clothing at the neck, waist, or wherever it may

CAUTION (081-831-1005)

DO NOT LOOSEN OR REMOVE protective
clothing in a chemical environment.

(5) Prevent chilling or overheating. The key is to maintain
body temperature. In cold weather, place a blanket or other like item over
him to keep him warm and under him to prevent chilling (Figure 2-45).
However, if a tourniquet has been apphed, leave it exposed (if possible).
In hot weather, place the casualty in the shade and avoid excessive
covering.

Figure 2-45. Body temperature maintained.

2-46

FM 21-11

I

(6) Calm the casualty. Throughout the entire procedure of
treating and caring for a casualty, the rescuer should reassure the
casualty and keep him calm. This can be done by being authoritative
(taking charge) and by showing self-confidence. Assure the casualty that
you are there to help him.

(7) Seek medical aid.

b. Food and/or Drink. During the treatment/prevention of
shock, DO NOT give the casualty any food or drink. If you must leave the
casualty or if he is unconscious, turn his head to the side to prevent him
from choking should he vomit (Figure 2-46).

Figure 2-46. Casualty 's head turned to side.

c. Evaluate Casualty. If necessary, continue with the casualty's
evaluation.

2-47

FM 21-11

NOTES

2-48

FM 21-11

CHAPTER 3

FIRST AID FOR SPECIAL WOUNDS
INTRODUCTION

Basic lifesaving steps are discussed in Chapters 1 and 2: clear the
airway/restore the breathing and heartbeat, stop the bleeding, protect the
wound, and treat/prevent shock. They apply to first aid measures for all
injuries. Certain types of wounds and burns will require special
precautions and procedures when applying these measures. This chapter
discusses first aid procedures for special wounds of the head, face, and
neck; chest and stomach wounds; and burns. It also discusses the
techniques for applying dressings and bandages to specific parts of the
body.

Section I. GIVE PROPER FIRST AID FOR HEAD INJURIES

3-1. Head Injuries

A head injury may consist of one or a combination of the following
conditions: a concussion, a cut or bruise of the scalp, or a fracture of the
skull with injury to the brain and the blood vessels of the scalp. The
damage can range from a minor cut on the scalp to a severe brain injury
which rapidly causes death. Most head injuries lie somewhere between
the two extremes. Usually, serious skull fractures and brain injuries
occur together; however, it is possible to receive a serious brain injury
without a skull fracture. The brain is a very delicate organ; when it is
injured, the casualty may vomit, become sleepy, suffer paralysis, or lose
consciousness and slip into a coma. All severe head injuries are
potentially hfe-threatening. For recovery and return to normal function,
casualties require proper first aid as a vital first step.

3-2. Signs/Symptoms (081-831-1000)

A head injury may be open or closed. In open injuries, there is a visible
wound and, at times, the brain may actually be seen. In closed injuries,
no visible injury is seen, but the casualty may experience the same signs
and symptoms. Either closed or open head injuries can be life-threatening
if the injury has been severe enough; thus, if you suspect a head injury,
evaluate the casualty for the following:

• Current or recent unconsciousness (loss of consciousness).

• Nausea or vomiting.

3-1

FM 21-11

where he

Convulsions or twitches (involuntary jerking and shaking).

Slurred speech.

Confusion.

Sleepiness (drowsiness).

Loss of memory (does casualty know his own name,
is, and so forth).

Clear or bloody fluid leaking from nose or ears.

Staggering in walking.

Dizziness.

A change in pulse rate.

Breathing problems.

Eye (vision) problems, such as unequal pupils.

Paralysis.

Headache.

Black eyes.

Bleeding from scalp/head area.

Deformity of the head.

3-3. General First Aid Measures (081-831-1000)

cu General Considerations. The casualty with a head injury (or
suspected head injury) should be continually monitored for the
development of conditions which may require the performance of the
necessary basic lifesaving measures, therefore be prepared to—

• Clear the airway (and be prepared to perform the basic
lifesaving measures).

• Treat as a suspected neck/spinal injury until proven
otherwise. (See Chapter 4 for more information.)

3-2

FM 21-11

• Place a dressing over the wounded area. DO NOT
attempt to clean the wound.

Seek medical aid.

head.

• Keep the casualty warm.

• DO NOT attempt to remove a protruding object from the

• DO NOT give the casualty anything to eat or drink.

b. Care of the Unconscious Casualty. If a casualty is
unconscious as the result of a head injury, he is not able to defend
himself. He may lose his sensitivity to pain or ability to cough up blood
or mucus that may be plugging his airway. An unconscious casualty
must be evaluated for breathing difficulties, uncontrollable bleeding, and
spinal injury.

(1) Breathing. The brain requires a constant supply of
oxygen, A bluish (or in an individual with dark skin— grayish) color of
skin around the lips and nail beds indicates that the casualty is not
receiving enough air (oxygen). Immediate action must be taken to clear
the airway, to position the casualty on his side, or to give artificial
respiration. Be prepared to give artificial respiration if breathing should
stop.

(2) Bleeding. Bleeding from a head injury usually comes
from blood vessels within the scalp. Bleeding can also develop inside the
skull or within the brain. In most instances bleeding from the head can be
controlled by proper apphcation of the field first aid dressing.

CAUTION (081-831-1033)

DO NOT attempt to put unnecessary pressure
on the wound or attempt to push any brain
matter back into the head (skull). DO NOT
apply a pressure dressing.

(3) Spinal injury. A person that has an injury above the
collar bone or a head injury resulting in an unconscious state should be
suspected of having a neck or head injury with spinal cord damage.
Spinal cord injury may be indicated by a lack of responses to stimuli,
stomach distention (enlargement), or penile erection.

3-3

FM 21-11

(a) Lax:k of responses to stimuli. Starting with the
feet, use a sharp pointed object— a sharp stick or something similar, and
prick the casualty lightly while observing his face. If the casualty blinks
or frowns, this indicates that he has feeling and may not have an injury to
the spinal cord. If you observe no response in the casualty's reflexes after
pricking upwards toward the chest region, you must use extreme caution
and treat the casualty for an injured spinal cord.

(b) Stomach distention (enlargement). Observe the
casualty's chest and stomach. If the stomach is distended (enlarged)
when the casualty takes a breath and the chest moves slightly, the
casualty may have a spinal injury and must be treated accordingly.

(c) Penile erection. A male casualty may have a penile
erection, an indication of a spinal injury.

CAUTION

Hemember to suspect any casualty who has a
severe head injury or who is unconscious as
possibly having a broken neck or a spinal cord
injury! It is better to treat conservatively and
assume that the neck/spinal cord is injured
rather than to chance further injuring the
casualty. Consider this when you position the
casualty. See Chapter 4, paragraph 4-9 for
treatment procedures of spinal column
injuries.

c. Concussion. If an individual receives a heavy blow to the
head or face, he may suffer a breiin concussion, which is an injury to the
brain that involves a temporary /oss of some or all of the brain's ability to
function. For example, the casualty may not breathe properly for a short
period of time, or he may become confused and stagger when he attempts
to walk. A concussion may only last for a short period of time. However,
if a casualty is suspected of having suffered a concussion, he must be
seen by a physician as soon as conditions permit.

d. Convulsions. Convulsions (seizures/involuntary jerking) may
occur after a mild head injury. When a casualty is convulsing, protect
him from hurting himself. Take the following measures:

(1) Ease him to the ground.

(2) Support his head and neck.

3-4

FM 21-11

(3) Maintain his airway.

(4) Call for assistance.

(5) Treat the casualty's wounds and evacuate him
immediately.

e. Brain Damage. In severe head injuries where brain tissue is
protruding, leave the wound alone; carefully place a first aid dressing
over the tissue. DO NOT remove or disturb any foreign matter that may
be in the wound. Position the casualty so that his head is higher than his
body. Keep him warm and seek medical aid immediately.

NOTE

• DO NOT forcefully hold the arms and legs if
they are jerking because this can lead to
broken bones.

• DO NOT force anything between the
casualty's teeth— especially if they are tightly
clenched because this may obstruct the
casualty's airway.

• Maintain the casualty's airway if necessary.

3-4. Dressings and Bandages (081-831-1000 and 081-831-1033)

a Evaluate the Casualty (081-831-1000). Be prepared to perform
lifesaving measures. The basic lifesaving measures may include clearing
the airway, rescue breathing, chest compressions, treatment for shock,
and/or bleeding control.

b. Check Level of Consciousness/Responsiveness (081SS1-1033) .
With a head injury, an important area to evaluate is the casualty's level
of consciousness and responsiveness. Ask the casualty questions such
as—

• "What is your name?" (Person)

• "Where are you?" (Place)

• "What day /month/year is it?" (Time)

3-5

FM 21-11

i

Any incorrect responses, inability to answer, or changes in responses
should be reported to medical personnel. Check the casualty's level of
consciousness every 15 minutes and note any changes from earlier
observations.

c. Position the Casualty (081-831-1033).

WARNING (081-831-1033)

DO NOT move the casualty if you suspect he
has sustained a neck, spine or severe head
injury (which produces any signs or symptoms
other than minor bleeding). See task
081-831-1000, Evaluate the Casualty.

• If the casualty is conscious or has a minor (superficial)
scalp wound:

o Have the casualty sit up (unless other injuries
prohibit or he is unable); OR

o If the casualty is lying down and is not accumulating
fluids or drainage in his throat, elevate his head slightly; OR

o If the casualty is bleeding from or into his mouth or
throat, turn his head to the side or position him on his side so that the
airway will be clear. Avoid pressure on the wound or place him on his side
—opposite the site of the injury (Figure 3-1).

■I

WOUND

Figure 3-1. Casualty lying on side opposite injury.

<

• If the casualty is unconscious or has a severe head
injury, then suspect and treat him as having a potential neck or spinal
injury, immobilize and DO NOT move the casualty.

3-6

FM 21-11

NOTE (081-831-1033)

If the casualty is choking and/or vomiting or is
bleeding from or into his mouth (thus
compromising his airway), position him on his
side so that his airway will be clear. Avoid
pressure on the wound; place him on his side
opposite the side of the injury.

WARNING (081-831-1033)

If it is necessary to turn a casualty with a
suspected neck/spine injury; roll the casualty
gently onto his side, keeping the head, neck,
and body aligned while providing support for
the head and neck. DO NOT roll the casualty
by yourself but seek assistance. Move him only
if absolutely necessary, otherwise keep the
casualty immobilized to prevent further
damage to the neck/spine.

d. Expose the Wound (081-831-1033).

• Remove the casualty's helmet (if necessary).

• In a chemical environment:

o If mask and/or hood is not breached, apply no
dressing to the head wound casualty. If the "all clear" has not been
given, DO NOT remove the casualty's mask to attend the head wound;
OR

o If mask and/or hood have been breached and the "all
clear" has not been given, try to repair the breach with tape and apply no
dressing; OR

o If mask and/or hood have been breached and the "all
clear" has been given, the mask can be removed and a dressing applied.

WARNING

DO NOT attempt to clean the wound, or
remove a protruding object.

3-7

FM 21-11

4

NOTE

If there is an object extending from the wound,
DO NOT remove the object. Improvise bulky
dressings from the cleanest material available
and place these dressings around the
protruding object for support after applying
the field dressing.

NOTE

Always use the casualty's field dressing, not
your own!

e. Apply a Dressing to a Wound of the Forehead/Back of Head
(081-831-1033). To apply a dressing to a wound of the forehead or back of
the head—

(1) Remove the dressing from the wrapper.

(2) Grasp the tails of the dressing in both hands.

(

(3) Hold the dressing (white side down) directly over the
wound. DO NOT touch the white (sterile) side of the dressing or allow
anything except the wound to come in contact with the white side.

(4) Place it directly over the wound.

(5) Hold it in place with one hand. If the casualty is able, he
may assist.

(6) Wrap the first tail horizontally around the head; ensure
the tail covers the dressing (Figure 3-2).

{

Figure 3-2. First tail of dressing wrapped horizontally around head.
3-8

FM 21-11

(7) Hold the first tail in place and wrap the second tail in
the opposite direction, covering the dressing (Figure 3-3).

Figure 3-3. Second tail wrapped in opposite direction.

(8) Tie a nonslip knot and secure the tails at the side of the
head, making sure they DO NOT cover the eyes or ears (Figure 3-4).

Figure 3-4. Tails tied in nonslip knot at side of head.

f. Apply a Dressing to a Wound on Top of the Head
(081-831-1033). To apply a dressing to a wound on top of the head—

3-9

FM 21-11

I

(1) Remove the dressing from the wrapper.

(2) Grasp the tails of the dressing in both hands.

(3) Hold it (white side down) directly over the wound.

(4) Place it over the wound (Figure 3-5).

I

may assist.

Figure 3-5. Dressing placed over wound.
(5) Hold it in place with one hand. H the casualty is able, he

(6) Wrap one tail down under the chin (Figure 3-6), up in
front of the ear, over the dressing, and in front of the other ear.

4

Figure 3-6. One tail of dressing wrapped under chin.

3-10

FM 21-11

WARNING

(Make sure the tails remain wide and close to
the front of the chin to avoid choking the
casualty.)

(7) Wrap the remaining tail under the chin in the opposite
direction and up the side of the face to meet the first tail (Figure 3-7).

Figure 3-7. Remaining tail wrapped under chin in opposite directioru

(8) Cross the tails (Figure 3-8), bringing one around the
forehead (above the eyebrows) and the other around the back of the head
(at the base of the skull) to a point just above and in front of the opposite
ear, and tie them using a nonslip knot (Figure 3-9).

Figure 3-8. Tails of dressing crossed with one around forehead.

3-11

FM 21-11

i

Figure 3-9. Tails tied in nonslip knot (in front of and above ear).

g. Apply a Triangular Bandage to the Head. To apply a
triangular bandage to the head—

(1) Turn the base (longest side) of the bandage up and
center its base on center of the forehead, letting the point (apex) fall on
the back of the neck (Figure 3-10 A ).

i

the apex.

(2) Take the ends behind the head and cross the ends over

(3) Take them over the forehead and tie them (Figure 3-10 B).

(4) Tuck the apex behind the crossed part of the bandage
and/or secure it with a safety pin, if available (Figure 3-10 C).

Figure 3-10. Triangular bandage applied to head (Illustrated A thru C).
3-12

FM 21-11

h. Apply a Cravat Bandage to the Head. To apply a cravat
bandage to the head—

(1) Place the middle of the bandage over the dressing
(Figure 3-11 A).

(2) Cross the two ends of the bandage in opposite directions
completely around the head (Figure 3-11 B).

(3) Tie the ends over the dressing (Figure 3-11 C).

Figure 3-11. Cravat bandage applied to head (Illustrated A thru C).

Section II. GIVE PROPER FIRST AID FOR
FACE AND NECK INJURIES

3-5. Face Injuries

Soft tissue injuries of the face and scalp are common. Abrasions (scrapes)
of the skin cause no serious problems. Contusions (injury without a break
'in the skin) usually cause swelling. A contusion of the scalp looks and
feels like a lump. Laceration (cut) and avulsion (torn away tissue) injuries
are also common. Avulsions are frequently caused when a sharp blow

3-13

FM 21-11

^

separates the scalp from the skull beneath it. Because the face and scalp
are richly supplied with blood vessels (arteries and veins), wounds of
these areas usually bleed heavily.

3-6. Neck Injuries

Neck injuries may result in heavy bleeding. Apply manual pressure
above and below the injury and attempt to control the bleeding. Apply a
dressing. Always evaluate the casualty for a possible neck fracture/spinal
cord injury; if suspected, seek medical treatment inmiediately.

NOTE

Establish and maintain the airway in cases of
facial or neck injuries. If a neck fracture or spinal
cord injury is suspected, immobilize or stabilize
casualty and if necessairy, perform basic life
support measures. See Chapter 4 for further
information on treatment of spinal injuries.

3-7. Procedure

When a casualty has a face or neck injury, perform the measures below

i

a. Step ONE. Clear the airway. Be prepared to perform any of
the basic lifesaving steps. Clear the casualty's airway (mouth) with your
fingers, remove any blood, mucus, pieces of broken teeth or bone, or bits
of flesh, as well as any dentures.

b. Step TWO. Control any bleeding, especially bleeding that
obstructs the airway. Do this by applying direct pressure over a first aid
dressing or by applying pressure at specific pressure points on the face,
scalp, or temple. (See Appendix E for further information on pressure
points.) If the casualty is bleeding from the mouth, position him as
indicated (c below) and apply manual pressure.

CAUTION

Take care not to apply too much pressure to
the scalp if a skull fracture is suspected.

c. Step THREE. Position the casualty. If the casualty is
bleeding from the mouth (or has other drainage, such as mucus, vomitus.

3-14

<

FM 21-11

or so forth) and is conscious, place him in a comfortable sitting position
and have him lean forward with his head tilted slightly down to permit
free drainage (Figure 3-12). DO NOT use the sitting position if—

• It would be harmful to the casualty because of other

mjuries.

• The casualty is unconscious, in which case, place him on
his side (Figure 3-13). If there is a suspected injury to the neck or spine,
immobilize the head before turning the casualty on his side.

Figure 3-12. Casualty leaning forward to permit drainage.

i^i^

WOUND

Figure 3-13. Casualty lying on side.

CAUTION

If you suspect the casualty has a neck/spinal
injury, then immobilize his head/neck and treat
him as outlined in Chapter 4.

3-15

FM 21-11

i

d. Step FOUR. Perform other measures.

(1) Apply dressings/bandages to specific areas of the face.

(2) Check for missing teeth and pieces of tissue. Check for
detached teeth in the airway. Place detached teeth, pieces of ear or nose
on a field dressing and send them along with the casualty to the medical
facihty. Detached teeth should be kept damp.

(3) Treat for shock and seek medical treatment
IMMEDIATELY.

3-8. Dressings and Bandages (081-831-1033)

a. Eye Injuries. The eye is a vital sensory organ, and blindness
is a severe physical handicap. Timely first aid of the eye not only relieves
pain but also helps prevent shock, permanent eye injury, and possible loss of
vision. Because the eye is very sensitive, any injury can be easily aggravated
if it is improperly handled. Injuries of the eye may be quite severe. Cuts of
the eyeUds can appear to be very serious, but if the eyeball is not involved, a
person's vision usually will not be damaged. However, lacerations (cuts) of
the eyeball can cause permanent damage or loss of sight.

(1) Lacerated/torn eyelids. Lacerated eyeHds may bleed
heavily, but bleeding usually stops quickly. Cover the injured eye with a
sterile dressing. DO NOT put pressure on the wound because you may
injure the eyeball. Handle torn eyelids very carefully to prevent further
injurJ^ Place any detached pieces of the eyelid on a clean bandage or
dressing and immediately send them with the casualty to the medical
facility.

(2) Lacerated eyeball (injury to the globe). Lacerations or
cuts to the eyeball may cause serious and permanent eye damage. Cover
the injury with a loose sterile dressing. DO NOT put pressure on the
eyeball because additional damage may occur. An important point to
remember is that when one eyeball is injured, you should immobilize both
eyes. This is done by applying a bandage to both eyes. Because the eyes
move together, covering both will lessen the chances of further damage to
the injured eye.

CAUTION

DO NOT apply pressure when there is a
possible laceration of the eyeball. The eyeball
contains fluid. Pressure applied over the eye
will force the fluid out, resulting in permanent
injury. APPLY PROTECTIVE DRESSING
WITHOUT ADDED PRESSURE.

3-16

i

FM 21-11

(3) Extruded eyeballs. Solaiers may encounter casualties
with severe eye injuries that include an extruded eyeball (eyeball out-of-
socket). In such instances you should gently cover the extruded eye with
a loose moistened dressing and also cover the unaffected eye. DO NOT
bind or exert pressure on the injured eye while applying a loose dressing.
Keep the casualty quiet, place him on his back, treat for shock (make
warm and comfortable), and evacuate him immediately.

(4) Burns of the eyes. Chemical burns, thermeJ (heat) burns,
and light burns can affect the eyes.

(a) Chemical burns. Injuries from chemical burns
require immediate first aid. Chemical burns are caused mainly by acids or
alkalies. The first aid is to flush the eye(s) immediately with large
amounts of water for at least 5 to 20 minutes, or as long as necessary to
flush out the chemical. If the burn is an acid burn, you should flush the
eye for at least 5 to 10 minutes. If the burn is an alkali burn, you should
flush the eye for at least 20 minutes. After the eye has been flushed,
apply a bandage over the eyes and evacuate the casualty immediately.

(6) Thermal burns. When an individual suffers burns
of the face from a fire, the eyes will close quickly due to extreme heat.
This reaction is a natural reflex to protect the eyeballs; however, the
eyelids remain exposed and are frequently burned. If a casualty receives
burns of the eyeUds/face, DO NOT apply a dressing; DO NOT TOUCH;
seek medical treatment immediately.

(c) Light burns. Exposure to intense hght can burn an
individual. Infrared rays, eclipse light (if the casualty has looked directly
at the sun), or laser burns cause injuries of the exposed eyeball.
Ultraviolet rays from arc welding can cause a superficial burn to the
surface of the eye. These injuries are generally not painful but may cause
permanent damage to the eyes. Immediate first aid is usually not
required. Loosely bandaging the eyes may make the casualty more
comfortable and protect his eyes from further injury caused by exposure
to other bright lights or sunlight.

CAUTION

In certain instances both eyes are usually
bandaged; but, in hazardous surroundings
leave the uninjured eye uncovered so that the
casualty may be able to see.

3-17

FM 21-11

I

b. Side-of-Head or Cheek Wound (081-831-1033).

Facial injuries to the side of the head or the cheek may bleed profusely
(Figure 3-14). Prompt action is necessary to ensure that the airway
remains open and also to control the bleeding. It may be necessary to
apply a dressing. To apply a dressing—

(1) Remove the dressing Irom its wrapper.

(2) Grasp the tails in both hands.

(3) Hold the dressing directly over the wound with the
white side down and place it directly on the wound (Figure 3-15 A).

(4) Hold the dressing in place with one hand (the casualty
may assist if able). Wrap the top tail over the top of the head and bring it
down in front of the ear (on the side opposite the wound), under the chin
(Figure 3-15 B ) and up over the dressing to a point just above the ear (on
the wound side).

I

Figure 3-14. Side of head or cheek wound.

I

3-18

FM 21-11

Figure 3-15. Dressing placed directly on wound. Top tail wrapped
over top of head, down in front of ear, and under chin
(Illustrated A and B).

NOTE

When possible, avoid covering the casualty's
ear with the dressing, as this will decrease his
ability to hear.

(5) Bring the second tail under the chin, up in front of the
ear (on the side opposite the wound), and over the head to meet the other
tail (on the wound side) (Figure 3-16).

Figure 3-16. Bringing second tail under the chin.

3-19

FM 21-11

i

(6) Cross the two tails (on the wound side) (Figure 3-17) and
bring one end across the forehead (above the eyebrows) to a point just in
front of the opposite ear (on the uninjured side).

Figure 3-1 7. Crossing the tails on the side of the wound.

(7) Wrap the other tail around the back of the head (at the
base of the skull), and tie the two ends just in front of the ear on the
uninjured side with a nonsUp knot (Figure 3-18).

Figure 3-18. Tying the tails of the dressing in a nonslip knot.

c. Ear Injuries. Lacerated (cut) or avulsed (torn) ear tissue may
not, in itself, be a serious injury. Bleeding, or the drainage of fluids from
the ear canal, however, may be a sign of a head injury, such as a skull
fracture. DO NOT attempt to stop the flow from the inner ear canal nor

i

3-20

FM 21-11

put anything into the ear canal to block it. Instead, you should cover the
ear lightly with a dressing. For minor cuts or wounds to the external ear,
apply a cravat bandage as follows:

3-19 A).

(1) Place the middle of the bandage over the ear (Figure

(2) Cross the ends, wrap them in opposite directions around
the head, and tie them (Figures 3-19 B and 3-19 C).

©

Figure 3-19. Applying cravat bandage to ear (Illustrated A thru C).

(3) If possible, place some dressing material between the
back of the ear and the side of the head to avoid crushing the ear against
the head with the bandage.

d. Nose Injuries. Nose injuries generally produce bleeding. The
bleeding may be controlled by placing an ice pack over the nose, or
pinching the nostrils together. The bleeding may also be controlled by
placing torn gauze (rolled) between the upper teeth and the lip.

CAUTION

DO NOT attempt to remove objects inhaled in
the nose. An untrained person who rem.oves
such an object could worsen the casualty's
condition and cause permanent injury.

3-21

FM 21-11

i

e. Jaw Injuries. Before applying a bandage to a casualty's jaw.
remove all foreign material from the casualty's mouth. If the casualty is
unconscious, check for obstructions in the airway. When applying the
bandage, allow the jaw enough freedom to permit passage of air and
drainage from the mouth.

(1) Apply bandages attached to field first aid dressing to
the jaw. After dressing the wound, apply the bandages using the same
technique illustrated in Figures 3-5 through 3-8.

NOTE

The dressing and bandaging procedure
outlined for the jaw serves a twofold purpose.
In addition to stopping the bleeding and
protecting the wound, it also immobihzes a
fractured jaw.

(2) Apply a cravat bandage to the jaw.

(a) Place the bandage under the cbAn and carry its m
ends upward. Adjust the bandage to make one end longer than the other "
(Figure 3-20 A).

(6) Take the longer end over the top of the head to
meet the short end at the temple and cross the ends over (Figure 3-20 B).

(c) Take the ends in opposite directions to the other
side of the head and tie them over the part of the bandage that was
applied first (Figure 3-20 C).

Figure 3-20. Applying cravat bandage to jaw (Illustrated A thru C).
3-22

FM 21-11

NOTE

The cravat bandage technique is used to
immobilize a fractured jaw or to maintain a
sterile dressing that does not have tail
bandages attached.

Section III. GIVE PROPER FIRST AID FOR CHEST AND
ABDOMINAL WOUNDS AND BURN INJURIES

3-9. Chest Wounds (081-831-1026)

Chest injuries may be caused by accidents, buUet or missile wounds, stab
wounds, or falls. These injuries can be serious and may cause death
quickly if proper treatment is not given. A casualty with a chest injury
may complain of pain in the chest or shoulder area; he may have difficulty
with his breathing. His chest may not rise normally when he breathes.
The injury may cause the casualty to cough up blood and to have a rapid
or a weak heartbeat. A casualty with an open chest wound has a
punctured chest wall. The sucking sound heard when he breathes is
caused by air leaking into his chest cavity. This particular type of wound
is dangerous and will collapse the injured lung (Figure 3-21). Breathing
becomes difficult for the casualty because the wound is open. The
soldier's life may depend upon how quickly you make the wound airtight.

Figure 3-21. Collapsed lung.

3-10. Chest Wound(s) Procedure (081-831-1026)

a. Evaluate the Casualty (081-831-10(X)). Be prepared to perform
lifesaving measures. The basic lifesaving measures may include clearing
the airway, rescue breathing, chest compressions, treatment for shock,
and/or bleeding control.

3-23

FM 21-11

b. Expose the Wound. If appropriate, cut or remove the
casualty's clothing to expose the entire area of the wound. Remember,
DO NOT remove clothing that is stuck to the wound because additional
injury may result. DO NOT attempt to clean the wound.

NOTE

Examine the casualty to see if there is an entry
and/or exit wound. If there are two wounds
(entry, exit), perform the same procedure for
both wounds. Treat the more serious (heavier
bleeding, larger) wound first. It may be
necessary to improvise a dressing for the
second wound by using strips of cloth, such as
a torn T-shirt, or whatever material is
available. Also, listen for sucking sounds to
determine if the chest wall is punctured.

CAUTION

If there is an object extending from (impaled
in) the wound, DO NOT remove the object.
Apply a dressing around the object and use
additional improvised bulky materials/
dressings (use the cleanest materials available)
to build up the area around the object. Apply a
supporting bandage over the bulky materials
to hold them in place.

CAUTION (081-831-1026)

DO NOT REMOVE protective clothing in a
chemical environment. Apply dressings over
the protective clothing.

c. Open the Casualty's Field Dressing Plastic Wrapper. The
plastic wrapper is used with the field dressing to create an airtight seal.
If a plastic wrapper is not available, or if an additional wound needs to be ,
treated; cellophane, foil, the casualty's poncTho, or similar material may'
be used. The covering should be wide enough to extend 2 inches or more
beyond the edges of the wound in all directions.

3-24

FM 21-11

>

(1) Tear open one end of the casualty's plastic wrapper
covering the field dressing. Be careful not to destroy the wrapper and DO
NOT touch the inside of the wrapper.

(2) Remove the inner packet (field dressing).

(3) Complete tearing open the empty plastic wrapper using
as much of the wrapper as possible to create a flat surface.

d. Place the Wrapper Over the Wound (081-831-1026). Place the
inside surface of the plastic wrapper directly over the wound when the
casualty exhales and hold it in place (Figure 3-22). The casualty may hold
the plastic wrapper in place if he is able.

Figure 3-22. Open chest wound sealed with plastic wrapper.

e. Apply the Dressing to the Wound (081-831-1026).

(1) Use your free hand and shake open the field dressing
(Figure 3-23).

►

3-25

FM 21-11

DRESSING

PLASTIC WRAPPER

4

Figure 3-23. Shaking open the field dressing.

t

I (2) Place the white side of the dressing on the plastic

(wrapper covering the wound (Figure 3-24).

-^.•i<^r-'*^'*'' ">*«

Figure 3-24. Field dressing placed on plastic u. rapper.

NOl'E (OS 1-83 /-1 026)

Use the casualty's field dressing, not, your
own.

3-26

FM 21-11

(3) Have the casualty breathe normally.

(4) While maintaining pressure on the dressing, grasp one
tail of the field dressing with the other hand and wrap it around the
casualty's back.

(5) Wrap the other tail in the opposite direction, bringing
both tails over the dressing (Figure 3-25).

Figure 3-25. Tails of field dressing wrapped around casualty in opposite

direction.

(6) Tie the tail."- into a nonslip knot in the center of the
dressing afte-r the casualty exhales and before he inhales. This will aid in
maintaining pressure on the bandage after it has been tied (Figure 3-26).
Tie the dressing firmly enough to secure the dressing without interfering
with the casualty's brearhir.4.

^AhJ.':

Figure 3-26. Tails of dressing tied into nonslip knot over center of

dressing.

3-27

FM 21-11

«

NOTE (081-831-1026)

When practical, apply direct manual pressure
over the dressing for 5 to 10 minutes to help
control the bleeding.

f. Position the Casualty (081-831-1026). Position the casualty
on his injured side or in a sitting position, whichever makes breathing
easier (Figure 3-27).

Figure 3-27. Casualty positioned (lying) on injured side.

g. Seek Medical Aid. Contact medical personnel.

WARNING

Even if an airtight dressing has been placed
properly, air may still enter the chest cavity
without having means to escape. This causes a
life-threatening condition called tension
pneumothorax. If the casualty's condition (for
example, difficulty breathing, shortness of
breath, restlessness, or blueness of skin)
worsens after placing the dressing, quickly lift
or remove, then replace the airtight dressing.

3-11. Abdominal Wounds

The most serious abdominal wound is one in which an object penetrates
the abdominal wall and pierces internal organs or large blood vessels. In
these instances, bleeding may be severe and death can occur rapidly.

i

3-28

FM 21-11

3-12. Abdominal Wound(s) Procedure (081-831-1025)

(L Evaluate the Casualty. Be prepared to perform basic
lifesaving measures. It is necessary to check for both entry and exit
wounds. If there are two wounds (entry and exit), treat the wound that
appears more serious first (for example, the heavier bleeding, protruding
organs, larger wound, and so forth). It may be necessary to improvise
dressings for the second wound by using strips of cloth, a T-shirt, or the
cleanest material available.

6. Position the Casualty. Place and maintain the casualty on his
back with his knees in an upright (flexed) position (Figure 3-28). The
knees-up position helps relieve pain, assists in the treatment of shock,
prevents further exposure of the bowel (intestines) or abdominal organs,
and helps relieve abdominal pressure by allowing the abdominal muscles
to relax.

WOUND

PLACE CASUALTY ON BACK TO PREVENT FURTHER EXPOSURE OF THE
BOWEL UNLESS OTHER WOUNDS PREVENT SUCH ACTION. FLEX
CASUALTY'S KNEES TO RELAX ABDOMINAL MUSCLES AND ANY INTERNAL
PRESSURE.

Figure 3-28. Casualty positioned (lying) on back with knees (flexed) up.

c. Expose the Wound.

(1) Remove the casualty's loose clothing to expose the
wound. However, DO NOT attempt to remove clothing that is stuck to
the wound; it may cause further injury. Thus, remove any loose clothing
from the wound but leave in place the clothing that is stuck.

3-29

FM 21-11

I

CAUTION (081-831-1000 and 081-831-1025)

DO NOT REMOVE protective clothing in a
chemical environment, ^pply dressings over
the protective clothing.

(2) Gently pick up any organs which may be on the ground.
Do this with a clean, dry dressing or with the cleanest available material.
Place the organs on top of the casualty's abdomen (Figure 3-29).

BEFORE APPLYING DRESSINGS, CAREFULLY PLACE PROTRUDING ORGANS
NEAR THE WOUND TO PROTECT THEM AND CONTROL CONTAMINATION.

Figure 3-29. Protruding organs placed near wound.

i

n

NOTE (081-831-1025)

• DO NOT probe, clean, or try to remove any
foreign object from the abdomen.

• DO NOT touch with bare hands any exposed
organs.

• DO NOT push organs back inside the body.

d. Apply the Field Dressing. Use the casualty's field dressing,
not your own. If the field dressing is not large enough to cover the entire
wound, the plastic wrapper from the dressing may be used to cover the
wound first (placing the field dressing on top). Open the plastic wrapper
carefully without touching the inner surface, if possible. If necessary,
other improvised dressings may be made from clothing, blankets, or the
cleanest materials available because the field dressing and/or wrapper
may not be large enough to cover the entire wound.

3-30

FM 21-11

WARNING

If there is an object extending from the wound,
DO NOT remove it. Place as much of the
wrapper over the wound as possible without
dislodging or moving the object, DO NOT
place the wrapper over the object.

(1) Grasp the tails in both hands.

(2) Hold the dressing with the white, or cleanest, side down
directly over the wound.

(3) Pull the dressing open and place it directly over the
wound (Figure 3-30). If the casualty is able, he may hold the dressing in
place.

if^mi'^'

IF THE DRESSING WRAPPER IS LARGE ENOUGH TO EXTEND WELL BEYOND
THE PROTRUDING BOWEL. THE STERILE SIDE OF THE DRESSING WRAPPER
CAN BE PLACED DIRECTLY OVER THE WOUND, WITH THE FIELD DRESSING
ON THE TOP.

Figure 3-30. Dressing placed directly over the wound.

(4) Hold the dressing in place with one hand and use the
other hand to wrap one of the tails around the body.

(5) Wrap the other tail in the opposite direction until the
dressing is completely covered. Leave enough of the tail for a knot.

(6) Loosely tie the tails with a nonslip knot at the
casualty's side (Figure 3-31).

3-31

FM 21-11

Figure 3-31. Dressing applied and tails tied with a nonslip knot.

i

WARNING

When dressing is applied, DO NOT put
pressure on the wound or exposed internal
parts, because pressure could cause further
injury (vomiting, ruptured intestines, and so
forth). Therefore, tie the dressing ties (tails)
loosely at casualty's side, not directly over the
dressing.

(7) Tie the dressing firmly enough to prevent slipping
without applying pressure to the wound site (Figure 3-32).

(

Figure 3-32. Field dressing covered with improvised material and
loosely tied.

Field dressings can be covered with improvised reinforcement material
(cravats, strips of torn T-shirt, or other cloth), if available, for additional
support and protection. Tie improvised bandage on the opposite side of
the dressing ties firmly enough to prevent slipping but without applying
additional pressure to the wound.

i

3-32

FM 21-11

f

CAUTION (081-831-1025)

DO NOT give casualties with abdominal
wounds food nor water (moistening the lips is
allowed).

e. Seek Medical Aid. Notify medical personnel.

3-13. Bum Injuries

Burns often cause extreme pain, scarring, or even death. Proper
treatment will minimize further injury of the burned area. Before
administering the proper first aid, you must be able to recognize the type
of burn to be treated. There are four types of burns: (1) thermal burns
caused by fire, hot objects, hot hquids, and gases or by nuclear blast or
fire ball; (2) electrical burns caused by electrical wires, current, or
lightning; (3) chemical burns caused by contact with wet or dry chemicals
or white phosphorus (WP)— from marking rounds and grenades; and (4)
laser burns.

3-14. First Aid for Bums (081-831-1007)

a. Eliminate the Source of the Burn. The source of the burn
must be eliminated before any evaluation or treatment of the casualty
can occur.

(1) Remove the casualty quickly and cover the thermal
burn with any large nonsynthetic material, such as a field jacket. Roll the
casualty on the ground to smother (put out) the flames (Figure 3-33).

Figure 3-33. Casualty covered and rolled on ground.

3-33

FM 21-11

CAUTION

Synthetic materials, such as nylon, may melt
and cause further injury.

I

(2) Remove the electrical burn casualty from the electrical
source by turning off the electrical current. DO NOT attempt to turn off
the electricity if the source is not close by. Speed is critical, so DO NOT
waste unnecessary time. If the electricity cannot be turned off, wrap any
nonconductive material {dry rope, dry clothing, dry wood, and so forth)
around the casualty's back and shoulders and drag the casualty away
from the electrical source (Figure 3-34). DO NOT make body-to-body
contact with the casualty or touch any wires because you could also
become an electrical burn casualty.

S

Figure 3-34.

Casualty removed from electrical source fusing
nonconductive material).

WARNING

High voltage electrical burns may cause
temporary unconsciousness, difficulties in
breathing, or difficulties with the heart
(heartbeat).

i

(3) Remove the chemical from the burned casualty. Remove
liquid chemicals by flushing with as much water as possible. If water is
not available, use any nonflammable fluid to flush chemicals off the

3-34

FM 21-11

casualty. Remove dry chemicals by brushing off loose particles (DO NOT
use the bare surface of your hand because you could become a chemical
burn casualty) and then flush with large amounts of water, if available. If
large amounts of water are not available, then NO water should be
applied because small amounts of water applied to a dry chemical burn
may cause a chemical reaction. When white phosphorous strikes the skin,
smother with water, a wet cloth, or wet mud. Keep white phosphorous
covered with a wet material to exclude air which will prevent the particles
from burning.

WARNING

Small amounts of water applied to a dry
chemical burn may cause a chemical reaction,
transforming the dry chemical into an active
burning substance.

(4) Rem.ove the laser burn casualty from the source.
(NOTE: Lasers produce a narrow amplified beam of light. The word
laser means Light Amplification by Stimulated £J mission of i?adiation
and sources include range finders, weapons/guidance, communication
systems, and weapons simulations such as MILES.) When removing the
casualty from the laser beam source, be careful not to enter the beam or
you m.ay become a casualty. Never look directly at the beam source and if
possible, wear appropriate eye protection.

NOTE

After the casualty is removed from the source
of the burn, he should be evaluated for
conditions requiring basic lifesaving measures
(Evaluate the Casualty).

b. Expose the Burn. Cut and gently lift away any clothing
covering the burned area, without pulling clothing over the burns. Leave
in place any clothing that is stuck to the burns. If the casualty's hands or
wrists have been burned, remove jewelry if possible without causing
further injury (rings, watches, and so forth) and place in his pockets. This
prevents the necessity to cut off jewelry since swelling usually occurs as
a result of a burn.

3 35

FM 21-11

It

CAUTION (081-831-1007)

• DO NOT lift or cut away clothing if in a
chemical environment. Apply the dressing
directly over the casualty's protective
clothing.

• DO NOT attempt to decontaminate skin where
blisters have formed.

r

c. Apply a Field Dressing to the Burn.

(1) Grasp the tails of the casualty's dressing in both hands.

(2) Hold the dressing directly over the wound with the
I white (sterile) side down, pull the dressing open, and place it directly over
I the wound. If the casualty is able, he may hold the dressing in place.

(3) Hold the dressing in place with one hand and use the
other hand to wrap one of the tails around the Hmbs or the body.

(4) Wrap the other tail in the opposite direction until the
dressing is completelj'^ covered.

(5) Tie the tails into a knot over the outer edge of the
dressing. The dressing should be applied hghtly over the burn. Ensure
that dressing is applied firmly enough to prevent it from slipping.

NOTE

Use the cleanest improvised dressing material
available if a field dressing is not available or if
it is not large enough for the entire wound.

d. Take the Following Precautions (081-831-1007):

• DO NOT place the dressing over the face or genital area.

• DO NOT break the bhsters.

• DO NOT apply grease or ointments to the burns.

• For electrical burns, check for both an entry and exit
burn from the passage of electricity through the body. Exit burns may
appear on any area of the body despite location of entry burn.

3-36

FM 21-11

• For burns caused by wet or dry chemicals, flush the
burns with large amounts of water and cover with a dry dressing.

• For burns caused by white phosphorus (WP), flush the
area with water, then cover with a wet material, dressing, or mud to
exclude the air and keep the WP particles from burning.

• For laser burns, apply a field dressing.

• If the casualty is conscious and not nauseated, give him
small amounts of water,

e. Seek Medical Aid. Notify medical personnel.

Section IV. APPLY PROPER BANDAGES TO
UPPER AND LOWER EXTREMITIES

3-15. Shoulder Bandage

a. To apply bandages attached to the field first aid dressing—

(1) Take one bandage across the chest and the other across
the back and under the arm opposite the injured shoulder.

(2) Tie the ends with a nonslip knot (Figure 3-35).

Figure 3-35. Shoulder bandage.

3-37

FM 21-11

b. To apply a cravat bandage to the shoulder or armpit—

(1) Make an extended cravat bandage by using two
triangular bandages (Figure 3-36 A); place the end of the first triangular
bandage along the base of the second one (Figure 3-36 B).

(2) Fold the two bandages into a single extended bandage
(Figure 3-36 C).

(3) Fold the extended bandage into a single cravat bandage
(Figure 3-36 D ). After folding, secure the thicker part (overlap) with two
or more safety pins (Figure 3-36 E).

(4) Place the middle of the cravat bandage under the armpit
so that the front end is longer than the back end and safety pins are on
the outside (Figure 3-36 F).

(5) Cross the ends on top of the shoulder (Figure 3-36 G).

(6) Take one end across the back and under the arm on the
opposite side and the other end across the chest. Tie the ends (Figure 3-36
H).

APEX

END

APEX

END

©

^y

Figure 3-36. Extended cravat bandage applied to shoulder (or armpit)
(Illustrated A thru H).

3-38

FM 21-11

SAFETY PIN

«2v^'if-^•

Figure 3-36. Continued.

Be sure to place sufficient wadding in the armpit. DO NOT tie the cravat
bandage too tightly. Avoid compressing the major blood vessels in the
armpit.

3-16. Elbow Bandage

To apply a cravat bandage to the elbow—

a. Bend the arm at the elbow and place the middle of the cravat
at the point of the elbow bringing the ends upward (Figure 3-37 A).

3-37 B).

b. Bring the ends across, extending both downward (Figure

c. Take both ends around the arm and tie them with a nonslip
[knot at the front of the elbow (Figure 3-37 C).

3-39

FM 21-11

Figure 3-37. Elbow bandage (Illustrated A thru C).

CAUTION

If an elbow fracture is suspected, DO NOT
bend the elbow; bandage it in an extended
position.

3-17. Hand Bandage

a To apply a triangular bandage to the hand—

(1) Place the hand in the middle of the triangular bandage
with the wrist at the base of the bandage (Figure 3-38 A). Ensure that the
fingers are separated with absorbent material to prevent chafing and
irritation of the skin.

(2) Place the apex over the fingers and tuck any excess
material into the pleats on each side of the hand (Figure 3-38 B).

(3) Cross the ends on top of the hand, take them around the
wrist, and tie them (Figures 3-38 C, D, and E) with a nonslip knot.

i

i

Figure 3-38. Triangular bandage applied to hand (Illustrated A thru E).
3-40

FM 21-11

©

Figure 3-38. Continued.
b. To apply a cravat bandage to the palm of the hand—

(1) Lay the middle of the cravat over the palm of the hand
with the ends hanging down on each side (Figure 3-39 A).

(2) Take the end of the cravat at the little finger across the
back of the hand, extending it upward over the base of the thumb; then
bring it downward across the palm (Figure 3-39 B).

(3) Take the thumb end across the back of the hand, over
the palm, and through the hollow between the thumb and palm (Figure
3-39 C).

(4) Take the ends to the back of the hand and cross them;
then bring them up over the wrist and cross them again (Figure 3-39 D ).

(5) Bring both ends down and tie them with a nonslip knot
on top of the wrist (Figure 3-39 E and F).

Figure 3-39. Cravat bandage applied to palm of hand
(Illustrated A thru F).

3-41

FM 21-11

i

3-18, Leg (Upper and Lower) Bandage
To apply a cravat bandage to the leg—

a. Place the center of the cravat over the dressing (Figure
3-40 A).

b. Take one end around and up the leg in a spiral motion and the I
other end around and down the leg in a spiral motion, overlapping part of
each preceding turn (Figure 3-40 B).

c. Bring both ends together and tie them (Figure 3-40 C) with a
nonslip knot.

©

Figure 3-40. Cravat bandage applied to leg (Illustrated A thru C).

3-19. Knee Bandage

To apply a cravat bandage to the knee as illustrated in Figure 3-41, use
the same technique applied in bandaging the elbow. The same caution for
the elbow also applies to the knee. /

I

i

Figure 3-41. Cravat bandage applied to knee (Illustrated A thru C).
3-42

FM 21-11

3-20. Foot Bandage

To apply a triangular bandage to the foot- -

a. Place the foot in the middle of the triangular bandage with
the heel well forward of the base (Figure 3-42 A). Ensure that the toes are
separated with absorbent material to prevent chafing and irritation of
the skin.

6. Place the apex over the top of the foot and tuck any excess
material into the pleats on each side of the foot (Figure 3-42 B).

c. Cross the ends on top of the foot, take them around the ankle,
and tie them at the fronc of the ankle (Figure 3-42 C, D, and E).

Figure 3-42. Triangular bandage applied to foot (Illustrated A thru E).

3-43

FM 21-11

NOTES

3-44

FM 21-11

CHAPTER 4

FIRST AID FOR FRACTURES
INTRODUCTION

A fracture is any break in the continuity of a bone. Fractures can cause
total disability or in some cases death. On the other hand, they can most
often be treated so there is complete recovery. A great deal depends upon
the first aid the individual receives before he is moved. First aid includes
immobilizing the fractured part in addition to applying lifesaving
measures. The basic splinting principle is to immobilize the joints above
and below any fracture.

4-1. Kinds of Fractures

See figure 4-1 for detailed illustration.

BONE NOT PROTRUDING
(USUALLY NO EXTERNAL
BLEEDING

BONE PROTRUDING
(USUALLY BLEEDING)

OPEN FRACTURE
PRODUCED BY MISSILE

Figure 4-1. Kinds of fractures (Illustrated A thru C).

a. Closed Fracture. A closed fracture is a broken bone that does
not break the overlying skin. Tissue beneath the skin may be damaged. A
dislocation is when a joint, such as a knee, ankle, or shoulder, is not in
proper position. A sprain is when the connecting tissues of the joints
have been torn. Dislocations and sprains should be treated as closed
.fractures.

b. Open Fracture. An open fracture is a broken bone that breaks
(pierces) the overlying skin. The broken bone may come through the skin,

4-1

FM 21-11

♦

or a missile such as a bullet or shell fragment may go through the flesh
and break the bone. An open fracture is contaminated and subject to
infection.

4-2. Signs/Symptoms of Fractures (081-831-1000)

Indications of a fracture are deformity, tenderness, swelling, pain,
inability to move the injured part, protruding bone, bleeding, or
discolored skin at the injury site. A sharp pain when the individual
attempts to move the part is also a sign of a fracture. DO NOT encourage
the casualty to move the injured part in order to identify a fracture since
such movement could cause further damage to surrounding tissues and
promote shock. If you are not sure whether a bone is fractured, treat the
injury as a fracture.

4-3. Purposes of Immobilizing Fractures

A fracture is immobilized to prevent the sharp edges of the bone from
moving and cutting tissue, muscle, blood vessels, and nerves. This
reduces pain and helps prevent or control shock. In a closed fracture, '
immobilization keeps bone fragments from causing an open wound and i|
prevents contamination and possible infection. Splint to immobilize. '

4-4. Splints, Padding, Bandages, Slings, and Swathes
(081-831-1034)

a. Splints. Sphnts may be improvised from such items as
boards, poles, sticks, tree limbs, rolled niagazines, rolled newspapers, or
cardboard. If nothing is available for a spUnt, the chest wall can be used
to immobilize a fractured arm and the uninjured leg can be used to
immobilize (to some extent) the fractured leg.

6. Padding. Padding may be improvised from such items as a
jacket, blanket, poncho, shelter half, or leafy vegetation.

c. Bandages. Bandages may be improvised from belts, rifle
sHngs, bandoliers, kerchiefs, or strips torn from clothing or blankets.
Narrow materials such as wire or cord should not be used to secure a
spHnt in place.

d. Slings. A sling is a bandage (or improvised material such as a
piece of cloth, a belt, and so forth) suspended from the neck to support an
upper extremity. Also, slings may be improvised by using the tail of a
coat or shirt, and pieces torn from such items as clothing and blankets.
The triangular bandage is ideal for this purpose. Remember that the
casualty's hand should be higher than his elbow, and the shng should be
applied so that the supporting pressure is on the uninjured side.

4-2

r

FM 21-11

e. Swathes. Swathes are any bands (pieces of cloth, pistol belts,
and so forth) that are used to further immobilize a splinted fracture.
Triangular and cravat bandages are often used as or referred to as swathe
bandages. The purpose of the swathe is to immobilize, therefore, the
swathe bandage is placed above and/or below the fracture— not over it.

4-5. Procedures for Splinting Suspected Fractures (081-831-1034)

Before beginning first aid treatment for a fracture, gather whatever
splinting materials are available. Materials may consist of splints, such
as wooden boards, breuiches, or poles. Other spUnting materials include
padding, improvised cravats, and/or bandages. Ensure that splints are
long enough to immobilize the joint above and below the suspected
fracture. If possible, use at least four ties (two above and two below the
fracture) to secure the spUnts. The ties should be nonsUp knots and
should be tied away from the body on the splint.

a. Evaluate the Casualty (081-831-1000). Be prepared to
perform any necessary lifesaving measures. Monitor the casualty for
development of conditions which may require you to perform necessary
basic lifesaving measures. These measures include clearing the airway,
rescue breathing, CPR, preventing shock, and/or bleeding control.

WARNING (081-831-1000)

Unless there is immediate life-threatening
danger, such as a fire or an explosion, DO NOT
move the casualty with a suspected back or
neck injury. Improper movement may cause
permanent paralysis or death.

WARNING (081-831-1000)

In a chemical environment, DO NOT remove
any protective clothing. Apply the
dressing/splint over the clothing.

h. Locate the Site of the Suspected Fracture. Ask the casualty
for the location of the injury. Does he have any pain ? Where is it tender?
Can he move the extremity? Look for an unnatural position of the
extremity. Look for a bone sticking out (protruding).

c. Prepare the Casualty for Splinting the Suspected Fracture
(081-831-1034).

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FM 21-11

i

(1) Reassure the casualty. Tell him that you will be taking
care of him and that medical aid is on the way.

(2) Loosen any tight or binding clothing.

(3) Remove all the jewelry from the casualty and place it in
the casualty's pocket. Tell the casualty you are doing this because if the
jewelry is not removed at this time and swelling occurs later, further
bodily injury can occur.

NOTE

Boots should not be removed from the casualty
unless they are needed to stabilize a neck
injury, or there is actual bleeding from the
foot.

d Gather Splinting Materials (081-831-1034). If standard
splinting materials (splints, padding, cravats, and so forth) are not
available, gather improvised materials. Splints can be improvised from
wooden boards, tree branches, poles, rolled newspapers or magazines.
Splints should be long enough to reach beyond the joints above and
below the suspected fracture site. Improvised padding, such as a jacket,
blanket, poncho, shelter half, or leafy vegetation may be used. A cravat
can be improvised from a piece of cloth, a large bandage, a shirt, or a
towel. Also, to immobihze a suspected fracture of an arm or a leg, parts of
the casualty's body may be used. For example, the chest wall may be
used to immobilize an arm; and the uninjured leg may be used to
immobilize the injured leg.

NOTE

If splinting material is not available and
suspected fracture CANNOT be splinted, then
swathes, or a combination of swathes and
slings can be used to immobilize an extremity.

e. Pad the Splints (081-831-1034). Pad the splints where they
touch any bony part of the body, such as the elbow, wrist, knee, ankle,
crotch, or armpit area. Padding prevents excessive pressure to the area.

f. Check the Circulation Below the Site of the Injury (081-831-1034).

(1) Note any pale, white, or bluish-gray color of the skin
which may indicate impaired circulation. Circulation can also be checked

4-4

FM 21-11

by depressing the toe/fingernail beds and observing how quickly the color
returns. A slower return of pink color to the injured side when compared
with the uninjured side indicates a problem with circulation. Depressing
the toe/fingernail beds is a method to use to check the circulation in a
dark-skinned casualty.

(2) Check the temperature of the injured extremity. Use
your hand to compare the temperature of the injured side with the
uninjured side of the body. The body area below the injury may be colder
to the touch indicating poor circulation.

(3) Question the casualty about the presence of numbness,
tightness, cold, or tingling sensations.

WARNING

Casualties with fractures to the extremities
may show impaired circulation, such as
numbness, tingling, cold and/or pale to blue
skin. These casualties should be evacuated by
medical personnel and treated as soon as
possible. Prompt medical treatment may
prevent possible loss of the limb.

WARNING

If it is an open fracture (skin is broken; bone(s)
may be sticking out), DO NOT ATTEMPT TO
PUSH BONE(S) BACK UNDER THE SKIN.
Apply a field dressing to protect the area. See
Task 081-831-1016, Put on a Field or Pressure
Dressing.

g. Apply the Splint in Place (081-831-1034).

(1) Sphnt the fracture(s) in the position found. DO NOT
attempt to reposition or straighten the injury. If it is an open fracture,
stop the bleeding and protect the wound. (See Chapter 2, Section II, for
detailed information.) Cover all wounds with field dressings before
applying a sphnt. Remember to use the casualty's field dressing, not
your own. If bones are protruding (sticking out), DO NOT attempt to
push them back under the skin. Apply dressings to protect the area.

4-5

FM 21-11

i

(2) Place one splint on each side of the arm or leg. Make
sure that the splints reach, if possible, beyond the joints above and below
the fracture.

(3) Tie the splints. Secure each splint in place above and
below the fracture site with improvised (or actual) cravats. Improvised
cravats, such as strips of cloth, belts, or whatever else you have, may be
used. With minimal motion to the injured areas, place and tie the splints
with the bandages. Push cravats through and under the natural body
curvatures (spaces), and then gently position improvised cravats and tie
in place. Use nonslip knots. Tie all knots on the splint awa}^ from the
casualty (Figure 4-2). DO NOT tie cravats directly over suspected
fracture/dislocation site.

Figure 4-2. Nonslip knots tied away from casualty.

h. Check the Splint for Tightness (081-831-1034).

(1) Check to be sure that bandages are tight enough to
securely hold splinting materials in place, but not so tight that
circulation is impaired.

(2) Recheck the circulation after application of the splint.
Check the skin color and temperature. This is to ensure that the bandages
holding the splint in place have not been tied too tightly. A finger tip
check can be made by inserting the tip of the finger between the wrapped
tails and the skin.

(3) Make any adjustment without allowing the splint to
become ineffective.

i. Apply a Sling if Applicable (081-831-1034). An improvised
sling may be made from any available nonstretching piece of cloth, suchi
as a fatigue shirt or trouser, poncho, or shelter half. Slings may also be
improvised using the tail of a coat, belt, or a piece of cloth from a blanket
or some clothing. See Figure 4-3 for an illustration of a shirt tail used for

4-6

FM 21-11

support. A pistol belt or trouser belt also may be used for support (Figure
4-4). A sling should place the supporting pressure on the casualty's
uninjured side. The supported arm should have the hand positioned
slightly higher than the elbow.

Figure 4-3. Shirt tail
used for support.

Figure 4-4. Belt used
for support.

(1) Insert the splinted arm in the center of the shng (Figure

I Figure 4-5. Arm inserted in center of improvised sling. [

4-7

FM 21-11

I

(2) Bring the ends of the sUng up and tie them at the side
(or hollow) of the neck on the uninjured side (Figure 4-6).

Figure 4-6. Ends of improvised sling tied to side of neck. m

(Figure 4-7).

(3) Twist and tuck the corner of the sling at the elbow

i

Figure 4-7. Corner of sling twisted and tucked at elbow

4-8

FM 21-11

j. Apply a Swathe if Applicable (081-831-1034). You may use
any large piece of cloth, such as a soldier's belt or pistol belt, to improvise
a swathe. A swathe is any band (a piece of cloth) or wrapping used to
further immobilize a fracture. When splints are unavailable, swathes, or a
combination of swathes and shngs can be used to immobilize an
extremity.

WARNING (081-831-1034)

The swathe should not be placed directly on
top of the injury, but positioned either above
and/or below the fracture site.

(1) Apply swathes to the injured arm by wrapping the
swathe over the injured arm, around the casualty's back and under the
arm on the uninjured side. Tie the ends on the uninjured side (Figure 4-8).

Figure 4-8. Arm immobilized with strip of clothing.

(2) A swathe is apphed to an injured leg by wrapping the
swathe(s) around both legs and securing it on the uninjured side.

k. Seek Medical Aid. Notify medical personnel, watch closely
for development of hfe-threatening conditions, and if necessary, continue
to evaluate the casualty.

4-9

FM 21-11

4-6. Upper Extremity Fractures (081-831-1034)

Figures 4-9 through 4-16 show how to apply slings, sphnts, and cravats
(swathes) to immobilize and support fractures of the upper extremities.
Although the padding is not visible in some of the illustrations, it is
always preferable to apply padding along the injured part for the length
of the splint and especially where it touches any bony parts of the body.

I

METHOD 1

METHOD 2

Figure 4-9. Application of triangular bandage
to form sling (two methods).

i

4-10

FM 21-11

Figure 4-10. Completing sling sequence by twisting and tucking the
corner of the sling at the elbow (Illustrated A and B).

Figure 4-11. Board splints applied to fractured elbow when elbow is not
bent (two methods) (081-831-1034) (Illustrated A and B).

4-11

FM 21-11

i

Figure 4-12. Chest wall used as splint for upper arm fracture when no

splint is available (Illustrated A and B). il

CRAVAT (SWATHE) IMMOBILIZES THE
JOINT (ELBOW) ABOVE THE FRACTURE.

SECURED WITH
SAFETY PIN

CRAVAT/SWATHE IS FLUSH WITH
ELBOW. PROVIDES MORE SUPPORT
TO ELBOW WHEN IN THE LOWER
POSITION.

Figure 4-13. Chest wall, sling, and cravat used to immobilize fractured M
elbow when elbow is bent. T

4-12

FM 21-11

SITE OF FRACTURE

CRAVATS ABOVE AND BELOW
FRACTURE WITH KNOTS TIED
AGAINST BOARD

PADDING
BOARD

CRAVAT IMMOBILIZES
THE JOINT (WRIST AND
HAND) BELOW THE
FRACTURE.

CRAVAT (SWATHE)
IMMOBILIZES THE JOINT
(ELBOW) ABOVE THE
FRACTURE.

Figure 4-14. Board splint applied to fractured forearm
(Illustrated A and B).

SITE OF
FRACTURE

STICKS ROLLED IN
MATERIAL FROM
CLOTHING OR BLANKET

TAIL OF SHIRT

©

STRIP FROM
CLOTHING OR
BLANKET

Figure 4-15. Fractured forearm or wrist splinted with sticks and
supported with tail of shirt and strips of material (Illustrated A thru C).

4-13

FM 21-11

©

CRAVATS PLACED ABOVE AND BELOW
FRACTURE WITH KNOTS TIED AGAINST
BOARD

SITE OF FRACTURE

PADDING IN
PALM OF HAND

I

PADDING CRAVAT BOARD

Figure 4-16. Board splint applied to fractured wrist and hand

(Illustrated A thru C).

4-7. Lower Extremity Fractures (081-831-1034)

«

Figures 4-17 through 4-22 show how to apply spHnts to immobilize
fractures of the lower extremities. Although padding is not visible in
some of the figures, it is preferable to apply padding along the injured
part for the length of the splint and especially where it touches any bony \
parts of the body.

SITE OF FRACTURE

CRAVATS SECURE
FRACTURED LEG
TO UNINJURED LEG

BOARDS

CRAVATS PLACED ABOVE AND
BELOW FRACTURE.

TRIPS FROM
CLOTHING OR
BLANKET

Figure 4-17. Board splint applied to fractured hip or thigh
(081S31-1034).

I

4-14

FM 21-11

CRAVAT CRADLES KNEE: CRAVAT IS PLACED AROUND
THE SPLINT, BETWEEN THE BOARDS, UNDER THE KNEE,
THUS CRADLING THE KNEE (THE KNEE PROTRUDES
ABOVE THE SPLINTS).

FRACTURED KNEE
PADDING

BOARD

CRAVAT TO SECURE ANKLE
(CUPPED UNDER HEEL,
CROSSED ON TOP OF
BOOT, CROSSED ON
SOLE OF BOOT, TIED ON
TOP OF BOOT).

CRAVATS PLACED ABOVE AND
BELOW FRACTURE. KNOTS TIED
AGAINST BOARD.

Figure 4-18. Board splint applied to fractured or dislocated knee
(081-831-1034).

CRAVAT TO SECURE ANKLE (PLACED UNDER SPLINT, CROSSED
ON TOP OF BOOT, CROSSED ON SOLE OF BOOT, TIED
ON TOP OF BOOT).

PADDING

BOARD SPLINT

CRAVATS PLACED
ABOVE AND BELOW
FRACTURE

CRAVAT TO SECURE FRACTURED LEG TO OTHER LEG
(IF MORE SUPPORT IS NEEDED).

Figure 419. Board splint applied to fractured lower leg or ankle.

4-15

FM 21-11

I

Figure 4-20. Improvised splint applied to fractured lower leg or ankle.

I

SPLINT APPLIED FOR FRACTURED LOWER LEG, KNEE OR ANKLE

SITE OF FRACTURE

SPLINT APPLIED FOR FRACTURED THIGH OR HIP

Figure 4-21. Poles rolled in a blanket and used as splints applied to
fractured lower extremity.

4-16

<

FM 21-11

CRAVAT

-OR-
SITE OF FRACTURE

Figure 4-22. Uninjured leg used as splint for fractured leg (anatomical
splint).

4-8. Jaw, Collfirbone, and Shoulder Fractures

a. Apply a cravat to immobilize a fractured jaw as illustrated in
Figure 4-23. Direct all bandaging support to the top of the casualty's
head, not to the back of his neck. If incorrectly placed, the bandage will
pull the casualty's jaw back and interfere with his breathing.

Figure 4-23. Fractured jaw immobilized (Illustrated A thru C).

4-17

FM 21-11

i

CAUTION

Casualties with lower jaw (mandible) fractures
cannot be laid flat on their backs because
facial muscles will relax and may cause an
airway obstruction.

b. Apply two belts, a sling, and a cravat to immobilize a
fractured collarbone, as illustrated in Figure 4-24.

PADDING

BELTS

SECURED WITH SAFETY PIN

Figure 4-24. Application of belts, sling, and cravat to immobilize a
collarbone.

k

4-18

FM 21-11

)

c. Apply a sling and a cravat to immobilize a fractured or
dislocated shoulder, using the technique illustrated in Figure 4-25.

SITE OF FRACTURE

SLING
SECURED WITH SAFETY PIN

Figure 4-25. Application of sling and cravat to immobilize a fractured
or dislocated shoulder (Illustrated A thru D).

4-9. Spinal Column Fractures (081-831-1000)

It is often impossible to be sure a casualty has a fractured spinal column.
Be suspicious of any back injury, especially if the casualty has fallen or if
his back has been sharply struck or bent. If a casualty has received such
an injury and does not have feeling in his legs or cannot move them, you
can be reasonably sure that he has a severe back injury which should be

4-19

FM 21-11

t

treated as a fracture. Remember, if the spine is fractured, bending it can
cause the sharp bone fragments to bruise or cut the spinal cord and result
in permanent paralysis (Figure 4-26 A). The spinal column must maintain
a swayback position to remove pressure from the spinal cord.

a. If the Casualty Is Not to Be Transported (081-831-1000) Until
Medical Personnel Arrive—

• Caution him not to move. Ask him if he is in pain or if he
is unable to move any part of his body.

• Leave him in the position in which he is found. DO NOT
move any part of his body.

• Slip a blanket, if he is lying face up, or material of similar
size, under the arch of his back to support the spinal column in a
swayback position (Figure 4-26 B). If he is lying face down, DO NOT put
anything under any part of his body.

FRACTURE

IN THIS POSITION, BONE FRAGMENTS
MAY BRUISE OR CUT THE SPINAL CORD

BLANKETS IN PLACE

IN THIS POSITION, BONE FRAGMENTS ARE IN PROPER PLACE AND WILL
NOT BRUISE OR CUT THE SPINAL CORD

Figure 4-26. Spinal column must maintain a swayback position
(Illustrated A and B).

4-20

FM 21-11

6. If the Casualty Must Be Transported to A Safe Location
Before Medical Personnel Arrive—

• And if the casualty is in a face-up position, transport him
by litter or use a firm substitute, such as a wide board or a flat door
longer than his height. Loosely tie the casualty's wrists together over his
waistline, using a cravat or a strip of cloth. Tie his feet together to
prevent the accidental dropping or shifting of his legs. Lay a folded
blanket across the litter where the arch of his back is to be placed. Using
a four-man team (Figure 4-27), place the casualty on the litter without
bending his spinal column or his neck.

WRISTS TIED LOOSELY

FEET TIED LOOSELY

Figure 4-27. Placing face-up casualty with fractured back onto litter.

4-21

FM 21-11

I

o The number two, three, and four men position
themselves on one side of the casualty; all kneel on one knee along the
side of the casualty. The number one man positions himself to the
opposite side of the casualty. The number two, three, and four men gently
place their hands under the casualty. The number one man on the
opposite side places his hands under the injured part to assist.

o When all four men are in position to lift, the number
two man commands, "PREPARE TO LIFT" and then, "LIFT." All
men, in unison, gently lift the casualty about 8 inches. Once the casualty
is lifted, the number one man recovers and slides the litter under the
casualty, ensuring that the blanket is in proper position. The number one
man then returns to his original hft position (Figure 4-27).

o When the number two man commands, "LOWER
CASUALTY," all men, in unison, gently lower the casualty onto the
litter.

• And if the casualty is in a face-down position, he must be
transported in this same position. The four-man team lifts him onto a
regular or improvised litter, keeping the spinal column in a swayback
position. If a regular litter is used, first place a folded blanket on the Utter
at the point where the chest will be placed.

4-10. Neck Fractures (081-831-1000)

A fractured neck is extremely dangerous. Bone fragments may bruise or
cut the spinal cord just as they might in a fractured back.

a. If the Casualty Is Not to Be Transported (081-831-1000) Until
Medical Personnel Arrive —

• Caution him not to move. Moving may cause death.

• Leave the casualty in the position in which he is found. If
his neck/head is in an abnormal position, immediately immobilize the
neck/head. Use the procedure stated below.

o Keep the casualty's head still, if he is lying face up,
raise his shoulders slightly, and sHp a roll of cloth that has the bulk of a
bath towel under his neck (Figure 4-28). The roll should be thick enough
to arch his neck only sUghtly, leaving the back of his head on the ground.
DO NOT bend his neck or head forward. DO NOT raise or twist his head.

4-22

FM 21-11

Immobilize the casualty's head (Figure 4-29). Do this by padding heavy
objects such as rocks or his boots and placing them on each side of his
head. If it is necessary to use boots, first fill them with stones, gravel,
sand, or dirt and tie them tightly at the top. If necessary, stuff pieces of
material in the top of the boots to secure the contents.

Figure 4-28. Casualty with roll of cloth (bulk) under neck.

Figure 4-29. Immobilization of fractured neck.

4-23

FM 21-11

o DO NOT move the casualty if he is lying face down.
Immobilize the head/neck by padding heavy objects and placing them on
each side of his head. DO NOT put a roll of cloth under the neck. DO NOT
bend the neck or head, nor roll the casualty onto his back.

b. If the Casualty Must be Prepared for Transportation Before
Medical Personnel Arrive—

• And he has a fractured neck, at least two persons are
needed because the casualty's head and trunk must be moved in unison.
The two persons must work in close coordination (Figure 4-30) to avoid
bending the neck.

• Place a wide board lengthwise beside tho casualty. It
should extend at least 4 inches beyond the casualty's head and feet
(Figure 4-30 A).

• If the casualty is lying face up, the number one man
steadies the casualty's head and neck between his hands. At the same
time the number two man positions one foot and one knee against the
board to prevent it from slipping, grasps the casualty underneath his
shoulder and hip, and gently shdes him onto the board (Figure 4-30 B).

o If the casualty is lying face down, the number one man
steadies the casualty's head and neck between his hands, while the
number two man gently rolls the casualty over onto the board (Figure
4-30 C).

• The number one man continues to steady the casualty's
head and neck. The number two man simultaneously raises the casualty's
shoulders slightly, places padding under his neck, and immobilizes the
casualty's head (Figures 4-30 D, and E), The head may be immobilized
with the casualty's boots, with stones rolled in pieces of blanket, or with
other material.

• Secure any improvised supports in position with a cravat
or strip of cloth extended across the casualty's forehead and under the
board (Figure 4-30 D).

• Lift the board onto a litter or blanket in order to
transport the casualty (Figure 4-30 E).

4-24

FM 21-11

Figure ^0. Prepann, casualty Mtk fractured neck for transportation
(Illustrated A thru E).

4-25

FM 21-11

NOTES

4-26

FM 21-11

CHAPTER 5

FIRST AID FOR CLIMATIC INJURIES
INTRODUCTION

It is desirable, but not always possible, for an individual's body to
become adjusted (acclimatized) to an environment. Physical condition
determines the time adjustment, and trying to rush it is ineffective. Even
those individuals in good physical condition need time before working or
training in extremes of hot or cold weather. Climate-related injuries are
usually preventable; prevention is both an individual and leadership
responsibility. Several factors contribute to health and well-being in any
environment: diet, sleep/rest, exercise, and suitable clothing. These
factors are particularly important in extremes of weather. Diet,
especially, should be suited to an individual's needs in a particular
climate. A special diet undertaken for any purpose should be done so with
appropriate supervision. This will ensure that the individual is getting a
properly balanced diet suited to both climate and personal needs,
whether for weight reduction or other purposes. The wearing of
speciahzed protective gear or clothing will sometimes add to the problem
of adjusting to a particular climate. Therefore, soldiers should exercise
caution and judgment in adding or removing specialized protective gear
or clothing.

5-1. Heat Injuries (081-831-1008)

Heat injuries are environmental injuries that may result when a soldier is
exposed to extreme heat, such as from the sun or from high
temperatures. Prevention depends on availability and consumption of
adequate amounts of water. Prevention also depends on proper clothing
and appropriate activity levels. Acclimatization and protection from
undue heat exposure are also very important. Identification of high risk
personnel (basic trainees, troops with previous history of heat injury, and
overweight soldiers) helps both the leadership and the individual prevent
and cope with climatic conditions. Instruction on living and working in
hot climates also contributes toward prevention.

NOTE

Salt tablets should not be used in the
prevention of heat injury. Usually, eating field
rations or liberal salting of the garrison diet
will provide enough salt to replace what is lost
through sweating in hot weather.

5-1

FM 21-11

i

a. Diet. A balanced diet usually provides enough salt even in
hot weather. But when people are on reducing or other diets, salt may
need to come from other sources. DO NOT use salt tablets to supplement
a diet. Anyone on a special diet (for whatever purpose) should obtain
professional help to work out a properly balanced diet.

b. Clotking.

(1) The type and amount of clothing and equipment a
soldier wears and the way he wears it also affect the body and its
adjustment to the environment. Clothing protects the body from radiant
heat. However, excessive or tight-fitting clothing, web equipment, and
packs reduce ventilation needed to cool the body. During halts, rest
stops, and other periods when such items are not needed, they should be
removed, mission permitting.

(2) The individual protective equipment (IPE) protects the
soldier from chemical and biological agents. The equipment provides a
barrier between him and a toxic environment. However, a serious
problem associated with the chemical overgarment is heat stress. The
body normally maintains a heat balance, but when the overgarment is
worn the body sometimes does not function properly. Overheating may
occur rapidly. Therefore, strict adherence to mission oriented protective
posture (MOPP) levels directed by your commander is important. This
will keep those heat related injuries caused by wearing the IPE to a
minimum. See FM 3-4 for further information on MOPP.

c. Prevention. The ideal fluid replacement is water. The
availabihty of sufficient water during work or training in hot weather is
very im.portant. The body, which depends on water to help cool itself, can
lose more than a quart of water per hour through sweat. Lost fluids must
be replaced quickly. Therefore, during these work or training periods, you
should drink at least one canteen full of water every hour. In extremely
hot climates or extreme temperatures, drink at least a fuU canteen of
water every half hour, if possible. In such hot climates, the body depends
mainly upon sweating to keep it cool, and water intake must be
maintained to allow sweating to continue. Also, keep in mind that a
person who has suffered one heat injury is likely to suffer another. Before
a heat injury casualty returns to work, he should have recovered well
enough not to risk a recurrence. Other conditions which may increase
heat stress and cause heat injury include infections, fever, recent illness
or injury, overweight, dehydration, exertion, fatigue, heavy meals, and
alcohol. In all this, note that salt tablets should not be used as a
preventive measure.

d. Categories. Heat injury can be divided into three categories:
heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heatstroke.

5-2

i

FM 21-11

e. First Aid. Recognize and give first aid for heat injuries.

WARNING

Casualty should be continually monitored for
development of conditions which may require
the performance of necessary basic lifesaving
measures, such as: clearing the airway,
performing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation,
preventing shock, and/or bleeding control.

(1) Check the casualty for signs and symptoms of heat
cramps (081-831-1008).

• Signs/Symptoms. Heat cramps are caused by an
imbalance of chemicals (called electrolytes) in the body as a result of
excessive sweating. This condition causes the casualty to exhibit:

o Muscle cramps in the extremities (arms and legs),

o Muscle cramps of the abdomen,

o Heavy (excessive) sweating (wet skin).

o Thirst.

• Treatment,
o Move the casualty to a cool or shady area (or

improvise shade),
environment),

of cool water.

o Loosen his clothing (if not in a chemical
o Have him slowly drink at least one canteen full
o Seek medical aid should cramps continue,

WARNING

DO NOT loosen the casualty's clothing if in a
chemical environment,

5-3

FM 21-11

(2) Check the casualty for signs and symptoms of heat
exhaustion (081-831-1008).

• Signs/Symptom,s which occur often. Heat exhaustion is
caused by loss of water through sweating without adequate fluid replacement.
It can occur in an otherwise fit individual who is involved in tremendous
physical exertion in any hot environment. The signs and symptoms are
sirnilar to those which develop when a person goes into a state of shock.

cool skin.

improvise shade).

o Heavy (excessive) sweating with pale, moist,

o Headache.

o Weakness.

o Dizziness.

o Loss of appetite.
Signs/Symptoms which occur sometimes.

o Heat cramps.

o Nausea — with or without vomiting.

o Urge to defecate.

o Chills (gooseflesh).

o Rapid breathing.

o TingUng of hands and/or feet.

o Confusion.
Treatment.

o Move the casualty to a cool or shady area (or

o Loosen or remove his clothing and boots (unless
in a chemical environment). Pour water op him and fan him (unless in a
chemical environment).

o Have him slowly drink at least one canteen full
of cool water.

5-4

FM 21-11

o Elevate his legs.

o If possible, the casualty should not participate
in strenuous activity for the remainder of the day.

o Monitor the casualty until the symptoms Eire
gone, or medical aid arrives.

(3) Check the casualty for signs and symptoms of
heatstroke (sometimes called ''sunstroke'') (081-831-1008).

WARNING

Heat stroke must be considered a medical
emergency which may result in death if
treatment is delayed.

• Signs/Symptoms. A casualty suffering from heat
stroke has usually worked in a very hot, humid environment for a

Iprolonged time. It is caused by failure of the body's cooling mechanisms.

inadequate sweating is a factor. The casualty's skin is red (flushed), hot,

and dry. He may experience weakness, dizziness, confusion, headaches,

seizures, nausea (stomach pains), and his respiration and pulse may be

rapid and weak. Unconsciousness and collapse may occur suddenl5^

• Treatment. Cool casualty immediately by—

o Moving him to a cool or shaded area (or
improvise shade).

o Loosening or removing his clothing (except in a
chemical environment).

o Immersing him in cool water or pouring water
on him; fanning him to permit a coolant effect of evaporation.

o Massaging his extremities and skin which
increases the blood flow to those body areas, thus aiding the cooling
process.

i

o Elevating his legs.

o Having him slowly drink at least one canteen
11 of water if he is conscious.

5-5

FM 21-11

I

NOTE

Start cooling casualty immediately. Continue
cooling while awaiting transportation and
during the evacuation.

• Medical aid. Seek medical aid because the casualty
should be transported to a medical treatment facility as soon as possible.
Do not interrupt cooling process or hfesaving measures to seek help.

• Casualty should be continually monitored for
development of conditions which may require the performance of
necessary basic lifesaving measures, such as clearing the airway, mouth-
to-mouth resuscitation, preventing shock, and/or bleeding control.

f. Table. See Table 5-1 for further information.

Table 5-1. Sun or Heat Injuries (081-831-1008)

INJURIES

SIGNS/SYMPTOMS

FIRST AID*

Heat cramps

The casualty

1.

Move the casualty to a

experiences muscle

shady area or improvise

cramps of arms,

shade and loosen his

legs, and/or

clothing.+

stomach. The

2.

Give him large amounts of

casualty may also

cool water slowly.

have heavy

3.

Monitor the casualty and

sweating (wet skin)

give him more water as

and extreme thirst.

tolerated.

4.

Seek medical aid if the
cramps continue.

«

Heat The casualty o/ten 1.

exhaustion experiences profuse

(heavy) sweating
with pale, moist,
cool skin; headache, 2.
weakness, dizziness,
and/or loss of
appetite. 3.

Move the casualty to a cool,

shady area or improvise

shade and loosen/remove his

clothing."*"

Pour water on him and fan

him to permit coolant effect

of evaporation.

Have him slowly drink at

least one canteen full of

water.

t

5-6

FM 21-11

>

Table 5-1. Continued.

Heat
exhaustion

The casualty
sometimes

4. Elevate the casualty's legs.

5. Seek medical aid if

Continued.

experiences heat
cramps, nausea
(with or without
vomiting), urge to
defecate, chills
(gooseflesh), rapid
breathing,
confusion, and
tingling of the
hands and/or feet.

symptoms continue; monitor
the casualty until the
symptoms are gone or
medical aid arrives.

Heatstroke
(sunstroke)

The casualty stops 1.

sweating (red
[flushed] hot, dry
skin). He first may
experience headache,
dizziness, nausea,
fast pulse and
respiration, seizures, 2.
and mental
confusion. He may
collapse and
suddenly become
unconscious. THIS
IS A MEDICAL 3.

EMERGENCY. 4.

Move the casualty to a cool,
shady area or improvise
shade and loosen or remove
his clothing, remove the
outer garments and
protective clothing if the
situation permits.^
Start cooling the casualty
immediately. Immerse the
casualty in cool water or
pour water on him. Fan him.
Massage his extremities and
skin.

Elevate his legs.
If conscious, have him
slowly drink at least one
canteen full of water.
SEEK MEDICAL AID.
CONTINUE COOLING
WHILE AWAITING
TRANSPORT AND
DURING EVACUATION.
EVACUATE AS SOON AS
POSSIBLE. PERFORM
ANY NECESSARY
LIFESAVING
MEASURES.

*The first aid procedure for heat related injuries caused by wearing
individual protective equipment is to move the casualty to a

t clean area and give him water to drink.
When in a chemical environment, DO NOT loosen/remove the
casualty's clothing,

u

*Can be fatal if not treated promptly and correctly.

5-7

FM 21-11

i

5-2. Cold Injuries (081-831-1009)

Cold injuries are most likely to occur when an unprepared individual is
exposed to winter temperatures. They can occur even with proper
planning and equipment. The cold weather and the t>-pe of combat
operation in which the individual is involved impact on whether he is
likely to be injured and to what extent. His clothing, his physical
condition, and his mental makeup also are determining factors. However,
cold injuries can usually be prevented. Well-disciplined and well-trained
individuals can be protected even in the most adverse circumstances.
They and their leaders must know the hazards of exposure to the cold.
They must know the importance of personal hygiene, exercise, care of the
feet and hands, and the use of protective clothing.

a. Contributing Factors.

(1) Weather. Temperature, humidity, precipitation, and
wind modify the loss of body heat. Low temperatures and low relative
humidity— dry cold— promote frostbite. Higher temperatures, together
with moisture, promote immersion syndrome. Windchill accelerates the
loss of body heat and may aggravate cold injuries. These principles and^
risks apply equally to both men and women. "

(2) Type of combat operation. Defense, delaying,
observation-post, and sentinel duties do create to a greater extent— fear,
fatigue, dehydration, and lack of nutrition. These factors further increase
the soldier's vulnerability to cold injury. Also, a soldier is more likely to
receive a cold injury if he is—

• Often in contact with the ground.

• Immobile for long periods, such as while riding in a
crowded vehicle.

• Standing in water, such as in a foxhole.

• Out in the cold for days without being warmed.

• Deprived of an adequate diet and rest.

• Not able to take care of his personal hygiene.

(3) Clothing. The soldier should wear several layers of loose
clothing. He should dress as lightly as possible consistent with theJI
weather to reduce the danger of excessive perspiration and subsequent"
chilling. It is better for the body to be slightly cold and generating heat
than excessively warm and sweltering toward dehydration. He should

5-8

FM 21-11

remove a layer or two of clothing before doing any hard work. He should
replace the clothing when work is completed. Most cold injuries result
from soldiers having too few clothes available when the weather suddenly
turns colder. Wet gloves, shoes, socks, or any other wet clothing add to
the cold injury process.

CAUTION

In a chemical environment DO NOT take off
protective chemical gear,

(4) Physical makeup. Physical fatigue contributes to
apathy, which leads to inactivity, personal neglect, carelessness, and
reduced heat production. In turn, these increase the risk of cold injury.
Soldiers with prior cold injuries have a higher- than-normal risk of
subsequent cold injury, not necessarily involving the part previously
injured.

(5) Psychological factor. Mental fatigue and fear reduces
I the body's ability to rewarm itself and thus increases the incidence of

cold injury. The feelings of isolation imposed by the environment are also
stressful. Depressed and/or unresponsive soldiers are also vulnerable
because they are less active. These soldiers tend to be careless about
precautionary measures, especially warming activities, when cold injury
is a threat.

b. Signs/Symptoms. Once a soldier becomes familiar with the
factors that contribute to cold injury, he must learn to recognize cold
injury signs/symptoms.

(1) Many soldiers suffer cold injury without reahzing what
is happening to them. They may be cold and generally uncomfortable.
These soldiers often do not notice the injured part because it is already
numb from the cold.

(2) Superficial cold injury usually can be detected by
numbness, tingling, or "pins and needles" sensations. These
signs/symptoms often can be relieved simply by loosening boots or other
clothing and by exercising to improve circulation. In more serious cases
involving deep cold injury, the soldier often is not aware that there is a
problem until the affected part feels like a stump or block of wood.

(3) Outward signs of cold injury include disco/oraf /on of the
skin at the site of injury. In light-skinned persons, the skin first reddens
and then becomes pale or waxy white. In dark-skinned persons, grayness
in the skin is usually evident. An injured foot or hand feels cold to the

5-9

>

FM 21-11

I

touch. Swelling may be an indication of deep injury. Also note that
blisters may occur after re warming the affected parts. Soldiers should
work in pairs— buddy teams— to check each other for signs of
discoloration and other symptoms. Leaders should also be alert for signs
of cold injuries.

c. Treatment Considerations. First aid for cold injuries depends
on whether they are superficial or deep. Cases of superficial cold injury
can be adequately treated by warming the affected part using body heat.
For example, this can be done by covering cheeks with hands, putting
fingertips under armpits, or placing feet under the clothing of a buddy
next to his belly. The injured part should NOT be massaged, exposed to a
fire or stove, rubbed with snow, slapped, chafed, or soaked in cold water.
Walking on injured feet should be avoided. Deep cold injury (frostbite) is
very serious and requires more aggressive first aid to avoid or to
minimize the loss of parts of the fingers, toes, hands, or feet. The
sequence for treating cold injuries depends on whether the condition is
life-threatening. That is, PRIORITY is given to removing the casualty
from the cold. Other-than-cold injuries are treated either simultaneously
while waiting for evacuation to a medical treatment facility or while en
route to the facility.

i

NOTE

The injured soldier should be evacuated at
once to a place where the affected part can be
rewarmed under medical supervision.

d. Conditions Caused by Cold. Conditions caused by cold are
chilblain, immersion syndrome (immersion foot/trench foot), frostbite,
snow blindness, dehydration, and hypothermia.

(1) Chilblain.

• Signs/Symptoms. Chilblain is caused by repeated
prolonged exposure of bare skin at temperatures from GO'-'F, to 32^F, or
20^F for acchmated, dry, unwashed skin. The area may be acutely
swollen, red, tender, and hot with itchy skin. There may be no loss of skin
tissue in untreated cases but continued exposure may lead to infected,
ulcerated, or bleeding lesions.

• Treatment. Within minutes, the area usually
responds to locally applied body heat. R^warm the affected part by
applying firm steady pressure with your hands, or placing the affected
part under your arms or against the stomach of a buddy. DO NOT rub or

5-10

I

FM 21-11

massage affected areas. Medical personnel should evaluate the injury,
because signs and symptoms of tissue damage may be slow to appear.

• Prevention. Prevention of chilblain depends on
basic cold injury prevention methods. Caring for and wearing the
uniform properly and staying dry (as far as conditions permit) are of
immediate importance.

(2) Immersion syndrome (immersion foot/trench foot).
Immersion foot and trench foot are injuries that result from fairly long
exposure of the feet to wet conditions at temperatures from
approximately 50^ to 32°F. Inactive feet in damp or wet socks and boots,
or tightly laced boots which impair circulation are even more susceptible
to injury. This injury can be very serious; it can lead to loss of toes or
parts of the feet. If exposure of the feet has been prolonged and severe,
the feet may swell so much that pressure closes the blood vessels and
cuts off circulation. Should an immersion injury occur, dry the feet
thoroughly; and evacuate the casualty to a medical treatment facility by
the fastest means possible.

• Signs/Symptoms. At first, the parts of the affected
' foot are cold and painless, the pulse is weak, and numbness may be

present. Second, the parts may feel hot, and burning and shooting pains
may begin. In later stages, the skin is pale with a bluish cast and the
pulse decreases. Other signs/symptoms that may follow are bhstering,
swelhng, redness, heat, hemorrhages (bleeding), and gangrene.

• Treatment. Treatment is required for all stages of
immersion syndrome injury. Rewarm the injured part gradually by
exposing it to warm air. DO NOT massage it. DO NOT moisten the skin
and DO NOT apply heat or ice. Protect it from trauma and secondary
infections. Dry, loose clothing or several layers of warm coverings are
preferable to extreme heat. Under no circumstances should the injured
part be exposed to an open fire. Elevate the injured part to relieve the
swelling. Evacuate the casualty to a medical treatment facility as soon as
possible. When the part is rewarmed, the casualty often feels a burning
sensation and pain. Symptoms may persist for days or weeks even after
rewarming.

• Prevention. Immersion syndrome can be prevented
by good hygienic care of the feet and avoiding moist conditions for
prolonged periods. Changing socks at least daily (depending on
environmental conditions) is also a preventive measure. Wet socks can be

(air dried, then can be placed inside the shirt to warm them prior to
putting them on.

5-11

FM 21-11

i

(3) Frostbite. Frostbite is the injury of tissue caused from
exposure to cold, usually below 32°F depending on the windchill factor,
duration of exposure, and adequacy of protection. Individuals with a
history of cold injury are likely to be more easily affected for an indefinite
period. The body parts most easily frostbitten are the cheeks, nose, ears,
chin, forehead, wrists, hands, and feet. Proper treatment and
management depend upon accurate diagnosis. Frostbite may involve
only the skin (superficial), or it may extend to a depth below the skin
(deep). Deep frostbite is very serious and requires more aggressive first
aid to avoid or to minimize the loss of parts of the fingers, toes, hands, or
feet.

WARNING

Casualty should be continually monitored for
development of conditions which may require
the performance of necessary basic lifesaving
measures, such as clearing the airway,
performing mouth-to-mouth resuscitation,
preventing shock, and/or bleeding control.

•

Progressive signs/symptoms (081-831-1009).

o

Loss of sensation, or numb feeling in any part

of the body.

0

Sudden blanching (whitening) of the skin of the

affected part, followed by a momentary "tingling" sensation.

o

Redness of skin in light-skinned soldiers;

grayish coloring in

dark-skinned individuals.

o

Blister.

0

Swelling or tender areas.

0

Loss of previous sensation of pain in affected

area.

0

Pale, yellowish, waxy-looking skin.

o

Frozen tissue that feels solid (or wooden) to the

touch.

5-12

FM 21-11

)

CAUTION

Deep frostbite is a very serious injury and
requires immediate first aid and subsequent
medical treatment to avoid or minimize loss of
body parts.

• Treatment (081-831-1009).

o Face, ears, and nose. Cover the casualty's
affected area with his and/or your bare hands until sensation and color
return.

o Hands. Open the casualty's field jacket and
shirt. (In a chemical environment never remove the clothing.) Place the
affected hands under the casualty's armpits. Close the field jacket and
shirt to prevent additional exposure.

o Feet. Remove the casualty's boots and socks if
he does not need to walk any further to receive additional treatment.
(Thawing the casualty's feet and forcing him to walk on them will cause
additional pain/injury.) Place the affected feet under clothing and against
the body of another soldier.

WARNING (081-831-1009)

DO NOT attempt to thaw the casualty's feet
or other seriously frozen areas if he will be
required to walk or travel to receive further
treatment. The casualty should avoid walking,
if possible, because there is less danger in
walking while the feet are frozen than after
they have been thawed. Thawing in the field
increases the possibilities of infection,
gangrene, or other injury,

NOTE

Thawing may occur spontaneously during
transportation to the medical facility; this
cannot be avoided since the body in general
must be kept warm.

In all of the above areas, ensure that the casualty is kept warm and that
he is covered (to avoid further injury). Seek medical treatment as soon as

5-13

FM 21-11

i

possible. Reassure the casualty, protect the affected area from further
injury by covering it lightly with a blanket or any dry clothing, and seek
shelter out of the wind. Remove/minimize constricting clothing and
increase insulation. Ensure that the casualty exercises as much as
possible, avoiding trauma to the injured part, and is prepared for pain
when thawing occurs. Protect the frostbitten part from additional injury.
DO NOT rub the injured part with snow or apply cold water soaks. DO
NOT warm the part by massage or exposure to open fire because the
frozen part may be burned due to the lack of feeling. DO NOT use
ointments or other medications. DO NOT manipulate the part in any way
to increase circulation. DO NOT allow the casualty to use alcohol or
tobacco because this reduces the body's resistance to cold. Remember,
when freezing extends to a depth below the skin, it involves a much more
serious injury. Extra care is required to reduce or avoid the chances of
losing all or part of the toes or feet. This also applies to the fingers and
hands.

• Prevention. Prevention of frostbite or any cold
injury depends on adequate nutrition, hot meals and warm fluids. Other :
cold injury preventive factors are proper clothing and maintenance of^j
general body temperature. Fatigue, dehydration, tobacco, and alcoholic II
beverages should be avoided. !

o Sufficient clothing must be worn for protection
against cold and wind. Layers of clothing that can be removed and |
replaced as needed are the most effective. Every effort must be made to ^
keep clothing and body as dry as possible. This includes avoiding any
excessive perspiration by removing and replacing layers of clothing.
Socks should be changed whenever the feet become moist or wet.
Clothing and equipment should be properly fitted to avoid an^
interference with blood circulation. Improper blood circulation reduces
the amount of heat that reaches the extremities. Tight fitting socks,
shoes, and hand wear are especially hazardous in very cold climates. The
face needs extra protection against high winds, and the ears need
massaging from time to time to maintain circulation. Hands may be used
to massage and warm the face. By using the buddy system, individuals
can watch each other's face for signs of frostbite to detect it early and
keep tissue damage to a minimum. A mask or headgear tunneled in front
of the face guards against direct wind injury. Fingers and toes should be
exercised to keep them warm and to detect any numbness. Wearing
windproof leather gloves or mittens and avoiding kerosene, gasoline, or
alcohol on the skin are also preventive measures. Cold metal should not
be touched with bare skin; doing so could result in severe skin damage.

o Adequate clothing and shelter are also
necessary during periods of inactivity.

5-14

i

FM 21-11

I

(4) Snow blindness. Snow blindness is the effect that glare
I from an ice field or snowfield has on the eyes. It is more likely to occur in
■ hazy, cloudy weather than when the sun is shining. Glare from the sun
will cause an individual to instinctively protect his eyes. However, in
cloudy weather, he may be overconfident and expose his eyes longer than
when the threat is more obvious. He may also neglect precautions such as
the use of protective eyewear. Waiting until discomfort (pain) is felt
before using protective eyewear is dangerous because a deep burn of the
eyes may already have occurred.

• Signs/Symptoms. Symptoms of snow blindness are
a sensation of grit in the eyes with pain in and over the eyes, made worse
by eyeball movement. Other signs/symptoms are watering, redness,
headache, and increased pain on exposure to light. The same condition
that causes snow blindness can cause snowburn of skin, lips, and eyelids.
If a snowburn is neglected, the result is the same as a sunburn.

• Treatment. First aid measures consist of
blindfolding or covering the eyes with a dark cloth which stops painful
eye movement. Complete rest is desirable. If further exposure to light is

I not preventable, the eyes should be protected with dark bandages or the
darkest glasses available. Once unprotected exposure to sunlight stops,
the condition usually heals in a few days without permanent damage. The
casualty should be evacuated to the nearest medical facility.

• Prevention. Putting on protective eye wear is
essential not only to prevent injury, but to prevent further injury if any
has occurred. When protective eye wear is not available, an emergency
pair can be made from a piece of wood or cardboard cut and shaped to the
width of the face. Cut slits for the eyes and attach strings to hold the
improvised glasses in place. Slits are made at the point of vision to allow
just enough space to see and reduce the risk of injury. Blackening the
eyelids and face around the eyes absorbs some of the harmful rays.

(5) Dehydration. Dehydration occurs when the body loses
too much fluid, salt, and minerals. A certain amount of body fluid is lost
through normal body processes. A normal daily intake of food and liquids
replaces these losses. When individuals are engaged in any strenuous
exercises or activities, an excessive amount of fluid and salt is lost
through sweat. This excessive loss creates an imbalance of fluids, and
dehydration occurs when fluid and salt are not replaced. It is very
important to know that it can be prevented if troops are instructed in its
causes, symptoms, and preventive measures. The danger of dehydration

>is as prevalent in cold regions as it is in hot regions. In hot weather the
individual is aware of his body losing fluids and salt. He can see, taste,
and feel the sweat as it runs down his face, gets into his eyes, and on his
lips and tongue, and drips from his body. In cold weather, however, it is

5-15

FM 21-11

extremely difficult to realize that this condition exists. The danger of
dehydration in cold weather operations is a serious problem. In cold
cHmates, sweat evaporates so rapidly or is absorbed so thoroughly by
layers of heavy clothing that it is rarely visible on the skin. Dehydration
also occurs during cold weather operations because drinking is
inconvenient. Dehydration will weaken or incapacitate a casualty for a
few hours, or sometimes, several days. Because rest is an important part
of the recovery process, casualties must take care that limited movement
during their recuperative period does not enhance the risk of becoming a
cold weather casualty.

• Signs/Symptoms. The symptoms of cold weather
dehydration are similar to those encountered in heat exhaustion. The
mouth, tongue, and throat become parched and dry, and swallowing
becomes difficult. The casualty may have nausea with or without
vomiting along with extreme dizziness and fainting. The casualty may
also feel generally tired and weak and may experience muscle cramps
(especially in the legs). Focusing eyes may also become difficult.

• Treatment. The casualty should be kept warm and
his clothes should be loosened to allow proper circulation. Shelter from
wind and cold will aid in this treatment. Fluid replacement, rest, and
prompt medical treatment are critical. Medical personnel will determine
the need for salt replacement.

• Prevention. These general preventive measures
apply for both hot and cold weather. Sufficient additional liquids should
be consumed to offset excessive body losses of these elements. The
amount should vary according to the individual and the type of work he
is doing (light, heavy, or very strenuous). Rest is equally important as a
preventive measure. Each individual must realize that any work that
must be done while bundled in several layers of clothing is extremely
exhausting. This is especially true of any movement by foot, regardless
of the distance.

(6) Hypothermia (general cooling). In intense cold a soldier
may become both mentally and physically numb, thus neglecting
essential tasks or requiring more time and effort to achieve them. Under
some conditions (particularly cold water immersion), even a soldier in
excellent physical condition may die in a matter of minutes. The
destructive influence of cold on the body is called hypothermia. This
means bodies lose heat faster than they .can produce it. Frostbite may
occur without hypothermia when extremities do not receive sufficient
heat from central body stores. The reason for thi,s is inadequate
circulation and/or inadequate insulation. Nonetheless, hypothermia and
frostbite may occur at the same time with exposure to below-freezing
temperatures. An example of this is an avalanche accident. Hypothermia

5-16

FM 21-11

may occur from exposure to temperatures above freezing, especially from
immersion in cold water, wet-cold conditions, or from the effect of wind.
Physical exhaustion and insufficient food intake may also increase the
risk of hypothermia. Excessive use of alcohol leading to unconsciousness
in a cold environment can also result in hypothermia. General cooling of
the entire body to a temperature below 95^F is caused by continued
exposure to low or rapidly dropping temperatures, cold moisture, snow,
or ice. Fatigue, poor physical condition, dehydration, faulty blood
circulation, alcohol or other drug intoxication, trauma, and immersion
can cause hypothermia. Remember, cold affects the body systems slowly
and almost without notice. Soldiers exposed to low temperatures for
extended periods may suffer ill effects even if they are well protected by
clothing.

• Signs/Symptoms. As the body cools, there are
several stages of progressive discomfort and impairment. A
sign/symptom that is noticed immediately is shivering. Shivering is an
attempt by the body to generate heat. The pulse is faint or very difficult
to detect. People with temperatures around 90*^F may be drowsy and
mentally slow. Their ability to move may be hampered, stiff, and
uncoordinated, but they may be able to function minimally. Their speech
may be slurred. As the body temperature drops further, shock becomes
evident as the person's eyes assume a glassy state, breathing becomes
slow and shallow, and the pulse becomes weaker or absent. The person
becomes very stiff and uncoordinated. Unconsciousness may follow
quickly. As the body temperature drops even lower, the extremities
freeze, and a deep (or core) body temperature (below 85°F) increases the
risk of irregular heart action. This irregular heart action or heart
standstill can result in sudden death.

• Treatment Except in cases of the most severe
hypothermia (marked by coma or unconsciousness, a weak pulse, and a
body temperature of approximately 90^F or below), the treatment for
hypothermia is directed towards reu;armmg^ the body evenly and without
delay. Provide heat by using a hot water bottle, electric blanket,
campfire, or another soldier's body heat. Always call or send for help as
soon as possible and protect the casualty immediately with dry clothing
or a sleeping bag. Then, move him to a warm place. Evaluate other
injuries and treat them. Treatment can be given while the casualty is
waiting evacuation or while he is en route. In the case of an accidental
breakthrough into ice water, or other hypothermic accident, strip the
casualty of wet clothing immediately and bundle him into a sleeping bag.
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation should be started at once if the casualty's
breathing has stopped or is irregular or shallow. Warm liquids may be
given gradually but must not be forced on an unconscious or
semiconscious person because he may choke. The casualty should be
transported on a litter because the exertion of walking may aggravate

5-17

FM 21-11

«

circulation problems. A physician should immediately treat any
hypothermia casualty. Hypothermia is life-threatening until normal body
temperature has been restored. The treatment of a casualty with severe
hypothermia is based upon the following principles: stabihze the
temperature, attempt to avoid further heat loss, handle the casualty
gently, and evacuate as soon as possible to the nearest medical treatment
facility! Rewarming a severely hypothermic casualty is extremely
dangerous in the field due to the great possibility of such complications
as rewarming shock and disturbances in the rhythm of the heartbeat.

NOTE

Resuscitation of casualties with hypothermic
complications is difficult if not impossible to
do outside of a medical treatment facility
setting.

CAUTION

The casualty is unable to generate his own
body heat. Therefore, merely placing him in a
blanket or sleeping bag is not sufficient.

«

• Prevention. Prevention of hypothermia consists of
all actions that will avoid rapid and uncontrollable loss of body heat.
Individuals should be properly equipped and properly dressed (as
appropriate for conditions and exposure). Proper diet, sufficient rest, and
general principles apply. Ice thickness must be tested before river or lake
crossings. Anyone departing a fixed base by aircraft, ground vehicle, or
foot must carry sufficient protective clothing and food reserves to
survive during unexpected weather changes or other unforeseen
emergencies. Traveling alone is never safe. Expected itinerary and arrival
time should be left with responsible parties before any departure in
severe weather. Anyone living in cold regions should learn how to build
expedient shelters from available materials including snow.

e. Table. See Table 5-2 for further information.

I

b-18

FM 21-11

Table 5-2. Cold and Wet Injuries (081-831-1009)

INJURIES SIGNS/SYMPTOMS

FIRST AID

Chilblain

Red, swollen, hot,
tender, itching skin.
Continued exposure
may lead to infected
(ulcerated or
bleeding) skin
lesions.

2.

3.

Area usually responds to

locally applied rewarming

(body heat).

DO NOT rub or massage

area.

Seek medical treatment.

Immersion
foot/
Trench foot

Affected parts are
cold, numb, and
painless. Parts may
then be hot, with
burning and
shooting pains.
Advanced stage:
skin pale with
bluish cast; pulse
decreases;
blistering, swelling,
heat, hemorrhages,
and gangrene may
follow.

1.

4.

5.

Gradual rewarming by

exposure to warm air.

DO NOT massage or

moisten skin.

Protect affected parts from

trauma.

Dry feet thoroughly, avoid

walking.

Seek medical treatment.

Frostbite

Loss of sensation,
or numb feeling in
any part of the
body. Sudden
blanching
(whitening) of the
skin of the affected
part, followed by a
momentary
"tingling"
sensation. Redness
of skin in light-
skinned soldiers;
grayish coloring in
dark-skinned
individuals.
Blisters. SweUing or
tender areas. Loss
of previous
sensation of pain in
affected area. Pale,

1. Warm the area at the first
sign of frostbite, using
firm, steady pressure of
hand, underarm or
abdomen.

2. Face, ears, nose— cover area
with hands (casualty's own
or buddy's).

3. Hand(s)— open field jacket
and place casualty's hand(s)
against body, then close
jacket to prevent heat loss.

4. Feet— casualty's
boots/socks removed and
exposed feet placed under
clothing and against body
of another soldier.

5. Warning: Do not attempt
to thaw the casualty's feet
or other seriously frozen
areas if he will be required

5-19

FM 21-11

Frostbite

Continued.

Table 5-2. Continued.

i

yellowish, waxy-
looking skin. Frozen
tissue that feels
solid (or wooden) to
the touch.

6.

to walk or travel to a
medical center in order to
receive additional
treatment. The possibility
of injury from walking is
less when the feet are
frozen than after they have
been thawed. (However, if
possible, avoid walking.)
Thawing in the field
increases the possibility of
infection, gangrene, or
injury.

Loosen or remove
constricting clothing and
remove any jewelry.
Increase insulation (cover
with blanket or other dry
material). Ensure casualty
exercises as much as
possible, avoiding trauma
to injured part.

«

Snow
Blindness

Eyes may feel
scratchy. Watering,
redness, headache,
and increased pain
with exposure to
light can occur.

1. Cover the eyes with a dark j.
cloth.

2. Seek medical treatment.

Dehydration

Similar to heat 1.

exhaustion. See 2.

Table 5-1.

Keep warm, loosen clothes.
Casualty needs fluid
replacement, rest, and
prompt medical treatment.

Hypothermia

Casualty is cold.
Shivering stops.
Core temperature is
low. Consciousness
may be altered.
Uncoordinated
movements may
occur. Shock and .
coma may result as

Mild Hypothermia

1. Rewarm body evenly and
without delay. (Need to

' provide heat source;
casualty's body unable to
generate heat).

2. Keep dry, protect from
elements.

I

5-20

FM 21-11

Table 5-2. Continued.

H3rpothermia

body temperature

3. Warm liquids may be given

Continued.

drops.

gradually (to conscious
casualties only),

4. Be prepared to start basic
life support measures for
the casualty.

5. Seek medical treatment
immediately!

Severe Hypothermia

1. Stabilize the temperature.

2. Attempt to avoid further
heat loss.

3. Handle the casualty gently.

4. Evacuate to the nearest
medical treatment facility
as soon as possible.

NOTE: Hypothermia is a MEDICAL EMERGENCY! Prompt
medical treatment is necessary.

5-21

FM 21-11

I

NOTES

«

1

5-22

FM 21-11

CHAPTER 6

FIRST AID FOR BITES AND STINGS
INTRODUCTION

Snakebites, insect bites, or stings can cause intense pain and/or swelling.
If not treated promptly and correctly, they can cause serious illness or
death. The severity of a snakebite depends upon: whether the snake is
poisonous or nonpoisonous, the type of snake, the location of the bite,
and the amount of venom injected. Bites from humans and other animals,
such as dogs, cats, bats, raccoons, and rats can cause severe bruises and
infection, and tears or lacerations of tissue. Awareness of the potential
sources of injuries can reduce or prevent them from occurring.
Knowledge and prompt application of first aid measures can lessen the
severity of injuries from bites and stings and keep the soldier from
becoming a serious casualty.

6-1. Types of Snakes

a. Nonpoisonous Snakes. There are approximately 130 different
varieties of nonpoisonous snakes in the United States. They have oval-
shaped heads and round eyes. Unlike poisonous snakes, discussed below,
nonpoisonous snakes do not have fangs with which to inject venom. See
Figure 6-1 for characteristics of a nonpoisonous snake.

TEETH

Figure 6-1. Characteristics of nonpoisonous snake.

b. Poisonous Snakes. Poisonous snakes are found throughout
the world, primarily in tropical to moderate climates. Within the United
States, there are four kinds: rattlesnakes, copperheads, water moccasins
(cottonmouth), and coral snakes. Poisonous snakes in other parts of the
world include sea snakes, the fer-de-lance, the bushmaster, and the
tropical rattlesnake in tropical Central America; the Malayan pit viper in
the tropical Far East; the cobra in Africa and Asia; the mamba (or black
mamba) in Central and Southern Africa; and the krait in India and
Southeast Asia. See Figure 6-2 for characteristics of a poisonous pit
viper.

6-1

FM 21-11

POISON SAC

FANG MARKS

FANGS

I

EYE

EYE

TEETH MARKS

Figure 6-2. Characteristics of poisonous pit viper.

c. Pit Vipers (Poisonous). See Figure 6-3 for illustrations.

TROPICAL RATTLESNAKE

BUSHMASTER

MALAYAN PIT VIPER

FER-DE- LANCE

«

Figure 6-3. Poisonous snakes.

i

6-2

FM 21-11

(1) Rattlesnakes, bushmasters, copperheads, fer-de-lance,
Malayan pit vipers, and water moccasins (cottonmouth) are called pit
vipers because of the small, deep pits between the nostrils and eyes on
each side of the head (Figure 6-2). In addition to their long, hollow fangs,
these snakes have other identifying features: thick bodies, slit-like pupils
of the eyes, and flat, almost triangular-shaped heads. Color markings and
other identifying characteristics, such as rattles or a noticeable white
interior of the mouth (cottonmouth), also help distinguish these
poisonous snakes. Further identification is provided by examining the
bite pattern of the wound for signs of fang entry. Occasionally there will
be only one fang mark, as in the case of a bite on a finger or toe where
there is no room for both fangs, or when the snake has broken off a fang.

(2) The casualty's condition provides the best information
about the seriousness of the situation, or how much time has passed since
the bite occurred. Pit viper bites are characterized by severe burning
pain. Discoloration and swelling around the fang marks usually begins
within 5 to 10 minutes after the bite. If only minimal swelling occurs
within 30 minutes, the bite will almost certainly have been from a
nonpoisonous snake or possibly from a poisonous snake which did not
inject venom. The venom destroys blood cells, causing a general
discoloration of the skin. This reaction is followed by blisters and
numbness in the affected area. Other signs which can occur are weakness,
rapid pulse, nausea, shortness of breath, vomiting, and shock.

d. Corals, Cobras, Kraits, and Mambas. Corals, cobra, kraits,
and mambas all belong to the same group even though they are found in
different parts of the world. All four inject their venom through short,
grooved fangs, leaving a characteristic bite pattern. See Figure 6-4 for
illustration of a cobra snake.

Figure 6-4. Cobra snake.

6-3

FM 21-11

(1) The small coral snake, found in the Southeastern United
States, is brightly colored with bands of red, yellow (or almost white), and
black completely encircHng the body (Figure 6-5). Other nonpoisonous
snakes have the same coloring, but on the coral snake found in the United
States, the red ring always touches the yellow ring. To know the
difference between a harmless snake and the coral snake found in the
United States, remember the following:

"Red on yellow will kill a fellow, Red on black,
venom will lack,"

^

Figure 6-5. Coral snake.

(2) The venom of corals, cobras, kraits, and mambas
produces symptoms different from those of pit vipers. Because there is
only minimal pain and swelling, many people believe that the bite is not
serious. Delayed reactions in the nervous system normally occur between
1 to 7 hours after the bite. Symptoms include blurred vision, drooping
eyelids, slurred speech, drowsiness, and increased salivation and
sweating. Nausea, vomiting, shock, respiratory difficulty, paralysis,
convulsions, and coma will usually develop if the bite is not treated
promptly.

e. Sea Snakes. Sea snakes (Figure 6-6) are found in the warm
water areas of the Pacific and Indian oceans, along the coasts, and at the
mouths of some larger rivers. Their venom is VERY poisonous, but their
fangs are only 1/4 inch long. The first aid outlined for land snakes also
applies to sea snakes.

6-4

FM 21-11

I

Figure 6-6. Sea snake.

6-2. Snakebites

If a soldier should accidentally step on or otherwise disturb a snake, it
will attempt to strike. Chances of this happening while traveling along
trails or waterways are remote if a soldier is alert and careful. Poisonous
snakes DO NOT always inject venom when they bite or strike a person.
However, all snakes may carry tetanus (lockjaw); anyone bitten by a
snake, whether poisonous or nonpoisonous, should immediately seek
medical attention. Poison is injected from the venom sacs through
grooved or hollow fangs. Depending on the species, these fangs are either
long or short. Pit vipers have long hollow fangs. These fangs are folded
against the roof of the mouth and extend when the snake strikes. This
allows them to strike quickly and then withdraw. Cobras, coral snakes,
kraits, mambas, and sea snakes have short, grooved fangs. These snakes
are less effective in their attempts to bite, since they must chew after
striking to inject enough venom (poison) to be effective. See Figure 6-7
for characteristics of a poisonous snakebite. In the event you are bitten,
attempt to identify and/or kill the snake. Take it to medical personnel for
inspection/identification. This provides valuable information to medical
personnel who deal with snakebites. TREAT ALL SNAKEBITES AS
POISONOUS.

POISON SAC
FANGS

TEETH

Figure 6-7. Characteristics of poisonous snake bite.

6-5

FM 21-11

f

a. Venoms. The venoms of different snakes cause different
effects. Pit viper venoms (hemotoxins) destroy tissue and blood cells.
Cobras, adders, and coral snakes inject powerful venoms (neurotoxins)
which affect the central nervous system, causing respiratory paralysis.
Water moccasins and sea snakes have venom that is both hemotoxic and
neurotoxic.

b. Identification. The identification of poisonous snakes is very
important since medical treatment will be different for each tyx)e of venom.
Unless it can be positively identified, the snake should be killed and saved.
When this is not possible or when doing so is a serious threat to others,
identification may sometimes be difficult since many venomous snakes
resemble harmless varieties. When dealing with snakebite problems in
foreign countries, seek advice, professional or otherwise, which may help
identify species in the particular area of operations.

c. First Aid. Get the casualty to a medical treatment facility as
soon as possible and with minimum movement. Until evacuation or
treatment is possible, have the casualty lie quietly and not move any
more than necessary. If the casualty has been bitten on an extremity, DO
NOT elevate the limb; keep the extremity level with the body. Keep the
casualty comfortable and reassure him. If the casualty is alone when
bitten, he should go to the medical facility himself rather than wait for
someone to find him. Unless the snake has been positively identified,
attempt to kill it and send it with the casualty. Be sure that retrieving
the snake does not endanger anyone or delay transporting the casualty.

(1) If the bite is on an arm or leg, place a constricting band
(narrow cravat [swathe], or narrow gauze bandage) one to two finger
breadths above and below the bite (Figure 6-8). If the bite is on the hand
or foot, place a single band above the wrist or ankle. The band should be
tight enough to stop the flow of blood near the skin, but not tight enough
to interfere with circulation. In other words, it should not have a
tourniquet-like affect. If no swelling is seen, place the bands about 1 inch
from either side of the bite. If swelling is present, put the bands on the
unswollen part at the edge of the swelling. If the swelling extends beyond
the band, move the band to the new edge of the swelling. (If possible,
leave the old band on, place a new one at the new edge of the swelling, and
then remove and save the old one in case the process has to be repeated.)
If possible, place an ice bag over the area of the bite. DO NOT wrap the
limb in ice or put ice directly on the skin. Cool the bite area— do not freeze
it. DO NOT stop to look for ice if it will delay evacuation and medical
treatment.

6-6

FM 21-11

i

Figure 6-8. Constricting band.

CAUTION

DO NOT attempt to cut open the bite nor suck
out the venom. If the venom should seep
through any damaged or lacerated tissues in
your mouth, you could immediately lose
consciousness or even die.

(2) If the bite is located on an arm or leg, immobilize it at a
level below the heart. DO NOT elevate an arm or leg even with or above
the level of the heart.

CAUTION

When a splint is used to immobilize the arm or
leg, take EXTREME care to ensure the
splinting is done properly and does not bind.
Watch it closely and adjust it if any changes in
swelling occur.

(3) When possible, clean the area of the bite with soap and
water. DO NOT use ointments of any kind.

(4) NEVER give the casualty food, alcohol, stimulants
(coffee or tea), drugs, or tobacco.

I (5) Remove rings, watches, or other jewelry from the

affected limb.

6-7

FM 21-11

NOTE

It may be possible, in some cases, for an
aidman who is specially trained and is
authorized to carry and use antivenin to
administer it. The use of antivenin presents
special risks, and only those with specialized
training should attempt to use it!

d Prevention. Except for a few species, snakes tend to be shy or
passive. Unless they are injured, trapped, or disturbed, snakes usually
avoid contact with humans. The harmless species are often more prone to
attack. All species of snakes are usually aggressive during their breeding
season.

(1) Land snakes. Many snakes are active during the period
from twilight to daylight. Avoid walking as much as possible during this
time.

• Keep your hands off rock ledges where snakes are
likely to be sunning.

• Look around carefully before sitting down,
particularly if in deep grass among rocks.

• Attempt to camp on clean, level ground. Avoid
camping near piles of brush, rocks, or other debris.

• Sleep on camping cots or anything that will keep
you off the ground. Avoid sleeping on the ground if at all possible.

• Check the other side of a large rock before stepping
over it. When looking under any rock, pull it toward you as you turn it
over so that it will shield you in case a snake is beneath it.

• Try to walk only in open areas. Avoid walking close
to rock walls or similar areas where snakes may be hiding.

• Determine when possible what species of snakes are
likely to be found in an area which you are about to enter.

• Hike with another person. Avoid hiking alone in a
snake-infested area. If bitten, it is important to have at least one
companion to perform lifesaving first aid measures and to kill the snake.
Providing the snake to medical personnel will facihtate both
identification and treatment.

6-8

FM 21-11

• Handle freshly killed venomous snakes only with a
long tool or stick. Snakes can inflict fatal bites by reflex action even after
death.

• Wear heavy boots and clothing for some protection
from snakebite. Keep this in mind when exposed to hazardous conditions.

• Eliminate conditions under which snakes thrive:
brush, piles of trash, rocks, or logs and dense undergrowth. ControUing
their food (rodents, small animals) as much as possible is also good
prevention.

(2) Sea snakes. Sea snakes may be seen in large numbers
but are not known to bite unless handled. Be aware of the areas where
they are most likely to appear and be especially alert when swimming in
these areas. Avoid swimming alone whenever possible.

WARNING

All species of snakes can swim. Many can
remain under water for long periods. A bite
sustained in water is just as dangerous as one
on land.

6-3. Human and Other Animal Bites

Human or other land animal bites may cause lacerations or bruises. In
addition to damaging tissue, human or bites from animals such as dogs,
cats, bats, raccoons, or rats always present the possibility of infection.

a. Human Bites. Human bites that break the skin may become
seriously infected since the mouth is heavily contaminated with bacteria.
All human bites MUST be treated by medical personnel.

b. Animal Bites. Land animal bites can result in both infection
and disease. Tetanus, rabies, and various types of fevers can follow an
untreated animal bite. Because of these possible comphcations, the
animal causing the bite should, if possible, be captured or killed (without
damaging its head) so that competent authorities can identify and test
the animal to determine if it is carrying diseases.

c. First Aid.

(1) Cleanse the wound thoroughly with soap or detergent
solution.

6-9

FM 21-11

f

(2) Flush it well with water.

(3) Cover it with a sterile dressing.

(4) Immobilize an injured arm or leg.

(5) Transport the casualty immediately to a medical
treatment facility.

NOTE

If unable to capture or kill the animal, provide
medical personnel with any information
possible that will help identify it. Information
of this type will aid in appropriate treatment.

6-4. Marine (Sea) Animals

With the exception of sharks and barracuda, most marine animals will
not deliberately attack. The most frequent injuries from marine animalsj
are wounds by biting, stinging, or puncturing. Wounds inflicted by
marine animals can be very painful, but are rarely fatal.

a. Sharks, Barracuda, and Alligators. Wounds from these
marine animals can involve major trauma as a result of bites and
lacerations. Bites from large marine animals are potentially the most life
threatening of all injuries from marine animals. Major wounds from these
animals can be treated by controlling the bleeding, preventing shock,
giving basic life support, splinting the injury, and by securing prompt
medical aid.

b. Turtles, Moray Eels, and Corals. These animals normally
inflict minor wounds. Treat by cleansing the wound(s) thoroughly and by
splinting if necessary.

c. Jellyfish, Portuguese men-of-war. Anemones, and Others.
This group of marine animals inflict injury by means of stinging cells in
their tentacles. Contact with the tentacles produces burning pain with a
rash and small hemorrhages on the skin. Shock, muscular cramping,
nausea, vomiting, and respiratory distress may also occur. Gently
remove the clinging tentacles with a towel and wash or treat the area.
Use diluted ammonia or alcohol, meat tenderizer, and talcum powder. If
symptoms become severe or persist, seek medical aid.

d. Spiny Fish, Urchins, Stingrays, and Cone Shells. These
animals inject their venom by puncturing with their spines. General

6-10

i

FM 21-11

t

signs and symptoms include swelling, nausea, vomiting, generalized
cramps, diarrhea, muscular paralysis, and shock. Deaths are rare.
Treatment consists of soaking the wounds in hot water (when available)
for 30 to 60 minutes. This inactivates the heat sensitive toxin. In
addition, further first aid measures (controlling bleeding, applying a
dressing, and so forth) should be carried out as necessary.

CAUTION

Be careful not to scald the casualty with water
that is too hot because the pain of the wound
will mask the normal reaction to heat.

6-5. Insect Bites/Stings

An insect bite or sting can cause great pain, allergic reaction,
inflammation, and infection. If not treated correctly, some bites/stings

(may cause serious illness or even death. When an allergic reaction is not
involved, first aid is a simple process. In any case, medical personnel
should examine the casualty at the earliest possible time. It is important
to properly identify the spider, bee, or creature that caused the bite/sting,
especially in cases of allergic reaction when death is a possibility.

a. Types of Insects. The insects found throughout the world
that can produce a bite or sting are too numerous to mention in detail.
Commonly encountered stinging or biting insects include brown recluse
spiders (Figure 6-9), black widow spiders (Figure 6-10), tarantulas (Figure
6-11), scorpions (Figure 6-12), urticating caterpillars, bees, wasps,
centipedes, conenose beetles (kissing bugs), ants, and wheel bugs. Upon
being reassigned, especially to overseas areas, take the time to become
acquainted with the types of insects to avoid.

>

Figure 6-9. Brown recluse spider.

6-11

FM 21-11

i

Figure 6-10. Black widow spider.

i

Figure 6-11. Tarantula.

Figure 6-12. Scorpion.

b. Signs/Symptoms. Discussed in paragraphs (1) and (2) below
are the most common effects of insect bites/stings. They can occur alone
or in combination with the others.

i

(1) Less serious. Commonly seen signs/symptoms are pain,
irritation, swelling, heat, redness, and itching. Hives or wheals (raised ]

6-12

FM 21-11

>

areas of the skin that itch) may occur. These are the least severe of the
allergic reactions that commonly occur from insect bites/stings. They are
usually dangerous only if they affect the air passages (mouth, throat,
nose, and so forth), which could interfere with breathing. The bites/stings
of bees, wasps, ants, mosquitoes, fleas, and ticks are usually not serious
and normally produce mild and localized symptoms. A tarantula's bite is
usually no worse than that of a bee sting. Scorpions are rare and their
stings (except for a specific species found only in the Southwest desert)
are painful but usually not dangerous.

(2) Serious. Emergency allergic or h5T)ersensitive reactions
sometimes result from the stings of bees, wasps, and ants. Many people
are allergic to the venom of these particular insects. Bites or stings from
these insects may produce more serious reactions, to include generalized
itching and hives, weakness, anxiety, headache, breathing difficulties,
nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Very serious allergic reactions (called
anaphylactic shock) can lead to complete collapse, shock, and even death.
Spider bites (particularly from the black widow and brown recluse
spiders) can be serious also. Venom from the black widow spider affects
the nervous system. This venom can cause muscle cramps, a rigid,
nontender abdomen, breathing difficulties, sweating, nausea and
vomiting. The brown recluse spider generally produces local rather than
system-wide problems; however, local tissue damage around the bite can
be severe and can lead to an ulcer and even gangrene.

c. First Aid. There are certain principles that apply regardless
of what caused the bite/sting. Some of these are:

• If there is a stinger present, for example, from a bee,
remove the stinger by scraping the skin's surface with a fingernail or
knife. DO NOT squeeze the sac attached to the stinger because it may
inject more venom.

• Wash the area of the bite/sting with soap and water
(alcohol or an antiseptic may also be used) to help reduce the chances of
an infection and remove traces of venom.

• Remove j ewelry from bitten extremities because swelling
is conmion and may occur.

• In most cases of insect bites the reaction will be mild and
localized; use ice or cold compresses (if available) on the site of the
bite/sting. This will help reduce swelling, ease the pain, and slow the
absorption of venom. Meat tenderizer (to neutralize the venom) or
calamine lotion (to reduce itching) may be appHed locally. If necessary,
seek medical aid.

6-13

FM 21-11

• In more serious reactions (severe and rapid swelling,
allergic symptoms, and so forth) treat the bite/sting like you would treat
a snakebite; that is, apply constricting bands above and below the site.
See paragraph 6-2c(l) above for details and illustration (Figure 6-8) of a
constricting band.

• Be prepared to perform basic life supporting measures,
such as rescue breathing and CPR.

• Reassure the casualty and keep him calm.

• In serious reactions, attempt to capture the insect for
positive identification; however, be careful not to become a casualty
yourself.

• If the reaction of symptoms appear serious, seek medical
aid immediately.

s

CAUTION

Insect bites/stings may cause anaphylactic
shock (a shock caused by a severe allergic
reaction). This is a life-threatening event and a
TRUE MEDICAL EMERGENCY! Be
prep£ired to perform the basic Life support
measures and to immediately transport the
casualtj' to a medical facility.

NOTE

Be aware that some allergic or hypersensitive
individuals may carry identification (such as a
MEDIC ALERT tag) or emergency insect bite
treatment kits. If the casualty is having an
allergic reaction and has such a kit, administer
the medication in the kit according to the
instructions which accompany the kit.

d. Prevention. Some prevention principles are:

• Apply insect repellent to all exposed skin, such as the
ankles to prevent insects from creeping between uniform and boots. Also

6-14

i

i

FM 21-11

>

apply the insect repellent to the shoulder blades where the shirt fits tight
enough that mosquitoes bite through. DO NOT apply insect repellent to
the eyes.

• Reapply repellent every 2 hours during strenuous
activity and soon after stream crossings.

risk.

Blouse the uniform inside the boots to further reduce

• Wash yourself daily if the tactical situation permits. Pay
particular attention to the groin and armpits.

• Use the buddy system. Check each other for insect bites.

• Wash your uniform at least weekly.

e. Supplemental Information. For additional information
concerning biting insects, see FM 8-230 and FM 21-10.

i 6-6. Table
See Table 6-1 for information on bites and stings.

Table 6-1. Bites and Stings

TYPES

FIRST AID

Snakebite

1. Move the casualty away from the snake.

2. Remove all rings and bracelets from the
affected extremity.

3. Reassure the casualty and keep him quiet.

4. Place ice or freeze pack, if available, over
the area of the bite.

5. Apply constricting band(s) 1-2 finger
breadths proximal to the bite. One should
be able to insert a finger between the band
and the skin.

• Arm or leg bite— place one band above
and one band below the bite site.

• Hand or foot bite— place one band
above the wrist or ankle.

6. Immobilize the affected part in a position
below the level of the heart.

6-15

Snakebite

Continued.

Table 6-1. Continued

7. Kill the snake (if possible, without
damaging its head or endangering
yourself) and send it with the casualty.

8. Seek medical aid immediately.

Brown Recluse
Spider or Black
Widow Spider
Bite

1. Keep the casualty quiet.

2. Wash the area.

3. Apply ice or freeze pack, if available.

4. Seek medical aid.

Tarantula Bite
or Scorpion Sting
or Ant Bites

1. Wash the area.

2. Apply ice or freeze pack, if available.

3. Apply baking soda, calamine lotion, or
meat tenderizer to bite site to reUeve pain
and itching.

4. If site of bite{s) or sting(s) is on the face,
neck (possible airway problems), or
genital area, or if local reaction seems
severe, or if the sting is by the dangerous
type of scorpion found in the Southwest
desert, keep the casualty quiet as possible
and seek immediate medical aid.

Bee Stings

1.

2.
3.

4.

If the stinger is present, remove by

scraping with a knife or fingernail. DO

NOT squeeze venom sac on stinger; more

venom may be injected.

Wash the area.

Apply ice or freeze pack, if available.

If allergic signs/symptoms appear, be

prepared to perform basic life support

measures and seek immediate medical

aid.

6-16

FM 21-11

»

CHAPTER 7

FIRST AID IN TOXIC ENVIRONMENTS
INTRODUCTION

American forces have not been exposed to high levels of toxic substances
on the battlefield since World War I. In future conflicts and wars we can
expect the use of such agents. Chemical weapons will degrade unit
effectiveness rapidly by forcing troops to wear hot protective clothing
and by creating confusion and fear. Through training in protective
procedures and first aid, units can maintain their effectiveness on the
integrated battlefield.

Section I. INDIVIDUAL PROTECTION AND FIRST AID
EQUIPMENT FOR TOXIC SUBSTANCES

7-1. Toxic Substances

a. Gasoline, chlorine, and pesticides are examples of common
Itoxic substances. They may exist as f^olids, liquids, or gases depending
■pon temperature and pressure. Gasoline, for example, is a vaporizable

liquid; chlorine is a gas; and Warfarin, a pesticide, is a solid. Some
substances are more injurious to the body than others when they are
inhaled or eaten or when they contact the skin or eyes. Whether they are
solids, liquids, or gases (vapors and aerosols included), they may irritate,
inflame, blister, burn, freeze, or destroy tissue such as that associated
with the respiratory tract or the eyes. They may also be absorbed into the
bloodstream, disturbing one or several of the body's major functions.

b. You may come in contact with toxic substances in combat or
in everyday activities. Ordinarily, brief exposures to common household
toxic substances, such as disinfectants and bleach solutions, do not cause
injuries. Exposure to toxic chemical agents in warfare, even for a few
seconds, could result in death, injury, or incapacitation. Remember that
toxic substances employed by an enemy could persist for hours or days.
To survive and operate effectively in a toxic environment, you must be
prepared to protect yourself from the effects of chemical agents and to
provide first aid to yourself and to others.

7-2. Protective and First Aid Equipment

»ou are issued equipment for protection and first aid treatment in a toxic
ivironment. You must know how to use the items described in a through
e. It is equally important that you know when to use them. Use your
protective clothing and equipment when you are ordered to and when you

7-1

FM 21-11

are under a nuclear, biological, or chemical (NBC) attack. Also, use your
protective clothing and equipment when you enter an area where NBC
agents have been employed.

a. Field Protective Mask With Protective Hood. Your field
protective mask is the most important piece of protective equipment.
You are given special training in its use and care.

b. Field Protective Clothing. Each soldier is authorized three
sets of the following field protective clothing:

\

Overgarment ensemble (shirt and trousers), chemical

protective.

• Footwear cover (overboots), chemical protective.

• Glove set, chemical protective.

c. Nerve Agent Pyridostigmine Pretreatment (NAPP). You will .

be issued a blister pack of pretreatment tablets when your commander m

directs. When ordered to take the pretreatment you must take one tablet ^

every eight hours. This must be taken prior to exposure to nerve agents, \

since it may take several hours to develop adequate blood levels. |!

NOTE

Normally, one set of protective clothing is used
in acclimatization training that uses various
mission-oriented protective posture (MOPP)
levels.

d. M258A1 Skin Decontamination Kit. The M258A1 Skin
Decontamination (decon) Kit contains three each of the following:

• DECON-1 packets containing wipes (pads) moistened
with decon solution.

• DECON-2 packets containing dry wipes (pads)
previously moistened with decon solution and sealed glass ampules.
Ampules are crushed to moisten pads.

7 2

i

FM 21-11

i

WARNING

The decon solution contained in both
DECON-1 and DECON-2 packets is a poison
and caustic hazard and can permanently
damage the eyes. Keep wipes out of the eyes,
mouth, and open wounds. Use WATER to
wash toxic agent out of eyes and wounds and
seek medical aid.

e. Nerve Agent Antidote Kit, Mark I (NAAK MKI). Each
soldier is authorized to carry three Nerve Agent Antidote Kits, Mark I,
to treat nerve agent poisoning. When NAPP has been taken several
hours (but no greater than 8 hours) prior to exposure, the NAAK MKI
treatment of nerve agent poisoning is much more effective.

)

Section II. CHEMICAL-BIOLOGICAL AGENTS

7-3. Classification

a Chemical agents may be classified according to the primary
physiological effects they produce, such as nerve, bhster, blood, choking,
vomiting, and incapacitating agents.

b. Biological agents may be classified according to the effect
they have on man. These include blockers, inhibitors, hybrids, and
membrane active compounds. These agents are found in living organisms
such as fungi, bacteria and viruses.

WARNING

I Ingesting water or food contaminated with

nerve, blister, and other chemical agents and
with some biological agents can be fatal.
NEVER consume water or food which is
suspected of being contaminated until it has
been tested and found safe for consumption.

7-3

FM 21-11

I

7-4, Conditions for Masking Without Order or Alarm

Once an attack with a chemical or biological agent is detected or
suspected, or information is available that such an agent is about to be
used, you must STOP breathing and mask immediately. DO NOT WAIT
to receive an order or alarm under the following circumstances:

• Your position is hit by artillery or mortar fire, missiles,
rockets, smokes, mists, aerial sprays, bombs, or bomblets.

• Smoke from an unknown source is present or
approaching.

• A suspicious odor, liquid, or solid is present.

• A toxic chemical or biological attack is present.

• You are entering an area known or suspected of being
contaminated.

begun.

During any motor march, once chemical warfare has

• When casualties are being received from an area where
chemical or biological agents have reportedly been used.

• You have one or more of the following symptoms:

o An unexplained runny nose.

o A feeling of choking or tightness in the chest or
throat.

o Dimness of vision.

o Irritation of the eyes.

o Difficulty in or increased rate of breathing without
obvious reasons.

o Sudden feeling of depression,
o Dread, anxiety, restlessness,
o Dizziness or light-headedness.
o Slurred speech.

• Unexplained laughter or unusual behavior is noted in others.]

7-4

FM 21-11

i

Numerous unexplained ill personnel.

Buddies suddenly collapsing without evident cause.

• Animals or birds exhibiting unusual behavior and/or
sudden unexplained death.

For further information, see FM 3-4.

7-5. First Aid for a Chemical Attack (081-831-1030 and
081-831-1031)

Your field protective mask gives protection against chemical as well as
biological agents. Previous practice enables you to mask in 9 seconds or
less or to put on your mask with hood within 15 seconds.

a. Step ONE (081-831-1030 and 081-831-1031). Stop
breathing. Don your mask, seat it properly, clear and check your mask,
and resume breathing. Give the 2ilarm, and continue the mission. Keep
our mask on until the "all clear" signal has been given.

r

NOTE

Keep your mask on until the area is no longer
hazardous and you are told to unmask.

b. Step TWO (081-831-1030). If symptoms of nerve agent
poisoning (paragraph 7-7) appear, immediately give yourself a nerve
agent antidote. You should have taken NAPP several hours prior to
exposure which will enhance the action of the nerve agent antidote.

CAUTION

Do not inject a nerve agent antidote until you
are sure you need it.

I c. Step THREE (081-831-1031). If your eyes and face become

•contaminated, you must immediately try to get under cover. You need
Rhis shelter to prevent further contamination while performing decon
I procedures on areas of the head. If no overhead cover is available, throw
.1 your poncho or shelter half over your head before beginning the decon

7-5

FM 21-11

process. Then you should put on the remaining protective clothing. (See
Appendix F for decon procedure.) If vomiting occurs, the mask should be
lifted momentarily and drained— while the eyes are closed and the breath
is held— and replaced, cleared, and sealed.

i

d. Step FOUR. If nerve agents are used, mission permitting,
watch for persons needing nerve agent antidotes and immediately foUow
procedures outlined in paragraph 7-86.

e. STEP FIVE. When your mission permits, decon your
clothing and equipment.

Section III. NERVE AGENTS

7-6. Background Information

a Nerve agents are among the deadliest of chemical agents.
They can be delivered by artillery shell, mortar shell, rocket, missile, -.
landmine, and aircraft bomb, spray, or bomblet. Nerve agents enter thM
body by inhalation, by ingestion, and through the skin. Depending on the^.
route of entry and the amount, nerve agents can produce injury or death !]
within minutes. Nerve agents also can achieve their effects with small !l
amounts. Nerve agents are absorbed rapidly, and the effects are felt 'i
immediately upon entry into the body. You will be issued three Nerve |:
Agent Antidote Kits, Mark I. Each kit consists of one atropine ;i
autoinjector and one pralidoxime chloride (2 PAM CI) autoinjector (also (
called injectors) (Figure 7-1).

PRALIDOXIME CHLORIDE INJECTOR

f^^.-, ■ "

FOR USE IN NERVE AGENT POISONING ONL

300mg ml 2ml

v..

|1 REMOVE GRAY SAFETY CAP

■!A<';!!'Ji.ri

>

l,|].i.|.JI.iHl.i|HJII.I*JM

Figure 7-1. Nerve Agent Antidote Kit, Mark I.

7-6

FM 21-11

I

b. When you have the signs and symptoms of nerve agent
poisoning, you should immediately put on the protective mask and then
inject yourself with one set of the Nerve Agent Antidote Kit, Mark I.
You should inject yourself in the outside (lateral) thigh muscle or if you
are thin, in the upper outer (lateral) part of the buttocks.

c. Also, you may come upon an unconscious chemical agent
casualty who will be unable to care for himself and who will require your
aid. You should be able to successfully—

(1) Mask him if he is unmasked.

(2) Inject him, if necessary, with all his autoinjectors.

(3) Decontaminate his skin.

(4) Seek medical aid.

F

7-7. Signs/Symptoms of Nerve Agent Poisoning (081-831-1030
and 081-831-1031)

The symptoms of nerve agent poisoning are grouped as MILD— those
which you recognize and for which you can perform self-aid, and
SEVERE— those which require buddy aid.

a. MILD Symptoms (081-831-1030).

• Unexplained runny nose.

• Unexplained sudden headache.

• Sudden drooling.

• Difficulty seeing (blurred vision),

• Tightness in the chest or difficulty in breathing.

• Localized sweating and twitching (as a result of small
amount of nerve agent on skin).

\

Stomach cramps.
Nausea.

7-7

FM 21-11

SEVERE Signs/Symptoms (081-831-1031).

• Strange or confused behavior.

• Wheezing, difficulty in breathing, and coughing.

• Severely pinpointed pupils.

• Red eyes with tearing (if agent gets into the eyes)

• Vomiting.

• Severe muscular twitching and general weakness.

• Loss of bladder/bowel control.

• Convulsions.

• Unconsciousness.

• Stoppage of breathing.

i

7-8. First Aid for Nerve Agent Poisoning (081-831-1030) and
(081-831-1031)

The injection site for administering the Nerve Agent Antidote Kit, Mark
I (see Figure 7-1), is normally in the outer thigh muscle (see Figure 7-2). It
is important that the injections be given into a large muscle area. If the
individual is thinly-built, then the injections must be administered into
the upper outer quarter (quadrant) of the buttocks (see Figure 7-3). This
avoids injury to the thigh bone.

HIP BONE

OUTER

THIGH MUSCLE

INJECTION
SITE

FRONTAL

Figure 7-2. Thigh injection site.

I

7-8

FM 21-11

i

WARNING

There is a nerve that crosses the buttocks, so it
is important to inject only into the upper outer
quadrant (see Figure 7-3). This will avoid
injuring this nerve. Hitting the nerve can
cause paralysis.

INJECTION
SITE

INJECTION
SITE

MAIN
NERVE

i

Figure 7-3. Buttocks injection site.

a. Self-Aid (081-831-1030).

(1) Immediately put on your protective mask after
identifying any of the signs/symptoms of nerve agent poisoning
(paragraph 7-7).

(2) Remove one set of the Nerve Agent Antidote Kit, Mark I.

(3) With your nondominant hand, hold the autoinjectors by
|the plastic clip so that the larger autoinjector is on top and both are
B)ositioned in front of you at eye level (see Figure 7-4).

L

7-9

FM 21-11

2 PAM CL

I

Figure 7-4. Holding the set of autoinjectors by the plastic clip.

(4) With the other hand, check the injection site (thigh or
buttocks) for buttons or objects in pockets which may interfere with the
injections.

(5) Grasp the atropine (smaller) autoinjector with the
thumb and first two fingers (see Figure 7-5).

i

CAUTION

DO NOT cover/hold the green (needle) end with
your hand or fingers— you might accidentally
inject yourself.

Figure 7-5. Grasping the atropine autoinjector between the thumb and
first two fingers of the hand.

7-10

FM 21-11

i

(6) Pull the injector out of the clip with a smooth motion
(see Figure 7-6).

WARNING

The injector is now armed. DO NOT touch the
green (needle) end.

I

>

Figure 7-6. Removing the atropine autoinjector from the clip.

(7) Form a fist around the autoinjector. BE CAREFUL
NOT TO INJECT YOURSELF IN THE HAND!

(8) Position the green end of the atropine autoinjector
against the injection site (thigh or buttocks):

(a) On the outer thigh muscle (see Figure 7-7).

Figure 7-7. Thigh injection site for self-aid.

7-11

FM 21-11

I

I

OR

Figure 7-8).

(6) On the upper outer portion of the buttocks (see

I

Figure 7-8. Buttocks injection site for self-aid.

(9) Apply firm, even pressure (not a jabbing motion) to the
injector until it pushes the needle into your thigh (or buttocks).

WARNING

Using a jabbing motion may result in an
improper injection or injury to the thigh or
buttocks.

NOTE

Firm pressure automatically triggers the
coiled spring mechanism. This plunges the
needle through the clothing into the muscle
and injects the fluid into the muscle tissue.

I

7-12

FM 21-11

(10) Hold the injector firmly in place for at least ten seconds.
The ten seconds can be estimated by counting "one thousand and one,
one thousand and two," and so forth.

(11) Carefully remove the autoinjector.

(12) Place the used atropine injector between the little finger
and the ring finger of the hand holding the remaining autoinjector and
the clip (see Figure 7-9). WATCH OUT FOR THE NEEDLE!

ATROPINE

2 PAM CL

►

Figure 7-9. Used atropine autoinjector placed between the little finger

and ring finger.

(13) Pull the 2 PAM CI autoinjector (the larger of the two
injectors) out of the clip (see Figure 7-10) and inject yourself in the same
manner as steps (7) through (11) above, holding the black (needle) end
against your thigh (or buttocks).

©

Figure 7-10. Removing the 2 PAM CI autoinjector.

7-13

FM 21-11

I

(14) Drop the empty injector clip without dropping the used
autoinjectors.

(15) Attach the used injectors to your clothing (see Figure
7-11). Be careful NOT to tear your protective gloves/clothing with the
needles.

(a) Push the needle of each injector (one at a time)
through one of the pocket flaps of your protective overgarment.

(6) Bend each needle to form a hook.

WARNING

It is important to keep track of all used
autoinjectors so that medical personnel can
determine how much antidote has been given
and the proper follow-up treatment can be
provided, if needed.

4

Figure 7-11. One set of used autoinjectors attached to pocket flap.

(16) Massage the injection site if time permits.

I

7-14

FM 21-11

t

WARNING

If within 5 to 10 minutes after administering
the first set of injections, your heart begins to
beat rapidly and your mouth becomes very
dry, DO NOT give yourself another set of
injections. You have already received enough
antidote to overcome the dangerous effects of
the nerve agent. If you are able to walk
without assistance (ambulate), know who you
are and where you are, you WILL NOT need
the second set of injections. (If not needed,
giving yourself a second set of injections may
create a nerve agent antidote overdose, which
could cause incapacitation.) If, however, you
continue to have symptoms of nerve agent
poisoning for 10 to 15 minutes after receiving
one set of injections, seek a buddy to check
your symptoms. If your buddy agrees that
your symptoms are worsening, administer the
second set of injections.

NOTE (081-831-1030)

While waiting between sets (injections), you
should decon your skin, if necessary, and put
on the remaining protective clothing.

)

h. Buddy aid (081-831-1031).

A soldier exhibiting SEVERE signs/symptoms of nerve agent poisoning
will not be able to care for himself and must therefore be given buddy aid
as quickly as possible. Buddy aid will be required when a soldier is totally
and immediately incapacitated prior to being able to apply self-aid, and
all three sets of his Nerve Agent Antidote Kit, Mark I, need to be given
by a buddy. Buddy aid may also be required after a soldier attempted to
counter the nerve agent by self-aid but became incapacitated after giving
himself one set of the autoinjectors. Before initiating buddy aid, a buddy
should determine if one set of injectors has already been used so that no
more than three sets of the antidote are administered.

(1) Move (roll) the casualty onto his back (face up) if not
already in that position.

7-15

FM 21-11

I

WARNING

Avoid unnecessary movement of the casualty so
as to keep from spreading the contamination.

(2) Remove the casualty's protective mask from the carrier.

(3) Position yourself above the casualty's head, facing his feet.

WARNING

Squat, DO NOT kneel, when masking a
chemical agent casualty. Kneeling may force
the chemical agent into or through your
protective clothing, which will greatly reduce
the effectiveness of the clothing.

i.

(4) Place the protective mask on the casualty.

(5) Have the casualty clear the mask.

(6) Check for a complete mask seal by covering the inlet
valves. If properly sealed the mask will collapse.

NOTE

If the casualty is unable to follow instructions,
is unconscious, or is not breathing, he will not
be able to perform steps (5) or (6). It may,
therefore, be impossible to determine if the
mask is sealed. But you should still try to
check for a good seal by placing your hands
over the valves.

I

(7) Pull the protective hood over the head, neck, and
shoulders of the casualty.

(8) Position yourself near the casualty's thigh.

(9) Remove one set of the casualty's autoinjectors.

7-16

FM 21-11

>

NOTE (081-831-1031)

Use the CASUALTY'S autoinjectors. DO
NOT use YOUR autoinjectors for buddy aid; if
you do, you may not have any antidote if/when
needed for self-aid.

(10) With your nondominant hand, hold the set of
autoinjectors by the plastic chp so that the larger autoinjector is on top
and both are positioned in front of you at eye level (see Figure 7-4).

(11) With the other hand, check the injection site (thigh or
buttocks) for buttons or objects in pockets which may interfere with the
injections.

(12) Grasp the atropine (smaller) autoinjector with the
thumb and first two fingers (see Figure 7-5).

►

CAUTION

DO NOT cover/hold the green (needle) end with
your hand or fingers— you may accidentally
inject yourself.

(13) Pull the injector out of the clip with a smooth motion
(see Figure 7-6).

WARNING

The injector is now armed. DO NOT touch the
green (needle) end.

(14) Form a fist around the autoinjector. BE CAREFUL
NOT TO INJECT YOURSELF IN THE HAND.

►

WARNING

Holding or covering the needle (green) end of
the autoinjector may result in accidentally
injecting yourself.

7-17

FM 21-11

(15) Position the green end of the atropine autoinjector
against the injection site (thigh or buttocks):

7-12).

(a) On the casualty's outer thigh muscle (see Figure

NOTE

The injections are normally given in the
casualty's thigh.

WARNING

If this is the injection site used, be careful not
to inject him close to the hip, knee, or thigh
bone.

Figure 7-12. Injecting the casualty's thigh.

OR

(b) On the upper outer portion of the casualty's
buttocks (see Figure 7-13).

7-18

FM 21-11

NOTE

If the casualty is thinly built, reposition him
onto his side or stomach and inject the
antidote into his buttocks.

WARNING

Inject the antidote only into the upper outer
portion of his buttocks (see Figure 7-13). This
avoids hitting the nerve that crosses the
buttocks. Hitting this nerve can cause
paralysis.

Figure 7-13. Injecting the casualty's buttocks.

(16) Apply firm, even pressure (not a jabbing motion) to the
injector to activate the needle. This causes the needle to penetrate both
the casualty's clothing and muscle.

WARNING

Using a jabbing motion may result in an
improper injection or injury to the thigh or
buttocks.

7-19

FM 21-11

i

(17) Hold the injector firmly in place for at least ten seconds.
The ten seconds can be estimated by counting "one thousand and one,
one thousand and two," and so forth.

(18) Carefully remove the autoinjector.

(19) Place the used autoinjector between the little finger and
ring finger of the hand holding the remaining autoinjector and the chp
(see Figure 7-9). WATCH OUT FOR THE NEEDLE!

(20) Pull the 2 PAM CI autoinjector (the larger of the two
injectors) out of the clip (see Figure 7-10) and inject the casualty in the
same manner as steps (9) through (19) above, holding the black (needle)
end against the casualty's thigh (or buttocks).

(21) Drop the clip without dropping the used autoinjectors.

(22) Carefully lay the used injectors on the casualty's chest
(if he is lying on his back), or on his back (if he is lying on his stomach),
pointing the needles toward his head.

(23) Repeat the above procedure immediately (steps 9
through 22), using the second and third set of autoinjectors.

(24) Attach the three sets of used autoinjectors to the
casualty's clothing (see Figure 7-14). Be careful NOT to tear either your
or the casualty's protective clothing/gloves with the needles.

(a) Push the needle of each injector (one at a time)
through one of the pocket flaps of his protective overgarment.

(6) Bend each needle to form a hook.

WARNING

It is important to keep track of all used
autoinjectors so that medical personnel will be
able to determine how much antidote has been
given and the proper follow-up treatment can
be provided, if needed.

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Figure 7-14. Three sets of used autoinjectors attached to pocket flap.
(25) Massage the area if time permits.

Section IV. OTHER AGENTS

I

)

7-9. Blister Agents

Blister agents (vesicants) include mustard (HD), nitrogen mustards
(HN), lewisite (L), and other arsenicals, mixtures of mustards and
arsenicals, and phosgene oxime (CX). Bhster agents act on the eyes,
mucous membranes, lungs, and skin. They burn and blister the skin or
any other body parts they contact. Even relatively low doses may cause
serious injury. Blister agents damage the respiratory tract (nose, sinuses
and windpipe) when inhaled and cause vomiting and diarrhea when
absorbed. Lewisite and phosgene oxime cause immediate pain on contact.
However, mustard agents are deceptive and there is httle or no pain at
the time of exposure. Thus, in some cases, signs of injury may not appear
for several hours after exposure.

a. Protective Measures. Your protective mask with hood and
protective overgarments provide you protection against blister agents. If
it is known or suspected that bhster agents are being used, STOP
BREATHING, put on your mask and all your protective overgarments.

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CAUTION

Large drops of liquid vesicants on the
protective overgarment ensemble may
penetrate it if allowed to stand for an extended
period. Remove large drops as soon as possible.

b. Signs/Symptoms of Blister Agent Poisoning.

(1) Immediate and intense pain upon contact (lewisite and
phosgene oxime). No initial pain upon contact with mustard.

(2) Inflammation and blisters (burns) — tissue destruction.
The severity of a chemical burn is directly related to the concentration of
the agent and the duration of contact with the skin. The longer the agent
is in contact with the tissue, the more serious the injury will be.

(3) Vomiting and diarrhea. Exposure to high concentrations of
vesicants may cause vomiting and/or diarrhea.

(4) Death. The blister agent vapors absorbed during
ordinary field exposure will probably not cause enough internal body
(systemic) damage to result in death. However, death may occur from
prolonged exposure to high concentrations of vapor or from extensive
liquid contamination over wide areas of the skin, particularly when decon
is neglected or delayed.

c. First Aid Measures.

(1) Use your M258A1 decon kit to decon your skin and use
water to flush contaminated eyes. Decontamination of vesicants must be
done immediately (within 1 minute is best).

(2) If bhsters form, cover them loosely with a field dressing
and secure the dressing.

CAUTION

Blisters are actually burns. DO NOT attempt
to decon the skin where blisters have formed.

(3) If you receive blisters over a wide area of the body, you are
considered seriously burned. SEEK MEDICAL AID IMMEDIATELY.

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(4) If vomiting occurs, the mask should be hfted
momentarily and drained— while the eyes are closed and the breath is
held— and replaced, cleared, and sealed.

(5) Remember, if vomiting or diarrhea occurs after having
been exposed to blister agents, SEEK MEDICAL AID IMMEDIATELY.

7-10. Choking Agents (Lung-Damaging Agents)

Chemical agents that attack lung tissue, primarily causing fluid buildup
(pulmonary edema), are classified as choking agents (lung-damaging
agents). This group includes phosgene (CG), diaphosgene (DP), chlorine
(CL), and chloropicrin (PS). Of these four agents, phosgene is the most
dangerous and is more likely to be employed by the enemy in future
conflict.

cu Protective Measures. Your protective mask gives adequate
protection against choking agents.

b. Signs/Symptoms. During and immediately after exposure to
choking agents (depending on agent concentration and length of
exposure), you may experience some or all of the following
signs/symptoms:

• Teeirs (lacrimation).

• Dry throat.

• Coughing.

• Choking.

• Tightness of chest.

• Nausea and vomiting.

• Headaches.

c. First Aid Measures.

(1) If you come in contact with phosgene, your eyes become
irritated, or a cigarette becomes tasteless or offensive, STOP
BREATHING and put on your mask immediately.

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(2) If vomiting occurs, the mask should be lifted
momentarily and drained— while the eyes are closed and the breath is
held— replaced, cleared, and sealed.

(3) Seek medical assistance if any of the above
signs/symptoms occur.

NOTE

If you have no difficulty breathing, do not feel
nauseated, and have no more than the usual
shortness of breath on exertion, then you
inhaled only a minimum amount of the agent.
You may continue normal duties.

d. Death. With ordinary field exposure to choking agents, death
will probably not occur. However, prolonged exposure to high
concentrations of the vapor and neglect or delay in masking can be fatal.

7-11. Blood Agents

Blood agents interfere with proper oxygen utilization in the body.
Hydrogen cyanide (AC) and cyanogen chloride (CK) are the primary
agents in this group.

a. Protective Measures. Your protective mask with a fresh
filter gives adequate protection against field concentrations of blood
agent vapor. The protective overgarment as well as the mask are needed
when exposed to liquid hydrogen cyanide.

6. Signs/Symptoms. During and immediately after exposure to
blood agents (depending on agent concentration and length of exposure),
you may experience some or all of the following signs/symptoms:

• Eye irritation.

• Nose and throat irritation.

• Sudden stimulation of breathing.

• Nausea.

• Coughing.

• Tightness of chest.

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• Headache.

• Unconsciousness,
c. First Aid Measures.

(1) Hydrogen cyanide. During any chemical attack, if you
get a sudden stimulation of breathing or notice an odor like bitter
almonds, PUT ON YOUR MASK IMMEDIATELY. Speed is absolutely
essential since this agent acts so rapidly that within a few seconds its
effects will make it impossible for individuals to put on their mask by
themselves. Stop breathing until the mask is on, if at all possible. This
may be very difficult since the agent strongly stimulates respiration.

(2) Cyanogen chloride. PUT ON YOUR MASK
IMMEDIATELY if you experience any irritation of the eyes, nose, or throat.

d. Medical Assistance. If you suspect that you have been
exposed to blood agents, seek medical assistance immediately.

7-12. Incapacitating Agents

Generally speaking, an incapacitating agent is any compound which can
interfere with your performance. The agent affects the central nervous
system and produces muscular weakness and abnormal behavior. It is
likely that such agents will be disseminated by smoke-producing
munitions or aerosols, thus making breathing their means of entry into
the body. The protective mask is, therefore, essential.

a. There is no special first aid to relieve the symptoms of
incapacitating agents. Supportive first aid and physical restraint may be
indicated. If the casualty is stuporous or comatose, be sure that
respiration is unobstructed; then turn him on his stomach with his head
to one side (in case vomiting should occur). Complete cleansing of the
skin with soap and water should be done as soon as possible; or, the
M258A1 Skin Decontamination Kit can be used if washing is impossible.
Remove weapons and other potentially harmful items from the
possession of individuals who are suspected of having these symptoms.
Harmful items include cigarettes, matches, medications, and small items
which might be swallowed accidentally. Delirious persons have been
known to attempt to eat items bearing only a superficial resemblance to
food.

b. Anticholinergic drugs (BZ - type) may produce alarming
dryness and coating of the lips and tongue; however, there is usually no
danger of immediate dehydration. Fluids should be given sparingly, if at

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all, because of the danger of vomiting and because of the Ukehhood of
temporary urinary retention due to paralysis of bladder muscles. An
important medical consideration is the possibility of heatstroke caused
by the stoppage of sweating. If the environmental temperature is above
78^ F, and the situation permits, remove excessive clothing from the
casualty and dampen him to allow evaporative cooling and to prevent
dehydration. If he does not readily improve, apply first aid measures for
heatstroke and seek medical attention.

7-13. Incendiaries

Incendiaries can be grouped as white phosphorus, thickened fuel, metal,
and oil and metal. You must learn to protect yourself against these
incendiaries.

a. White phosphorus (WP) is used primarily as a smoke
producer but can be used for its incendiary effect to ignite field
expedients and combustible materials. The burns from WP are usually
multiple, deep, and variable in size. When particles of WP get on the skin
or clothing, they continue to burn until deprived of air. They also have a
tendency to stick to a surface and must be brushed off or picked out.

(1) If burning particles of phosphorus strike and stick to
your clothing, quickly take off the contaminated clothing before the
phosphorus burns through to the skin.

(2) If burning phosphorus strikes your skin, smother the
flame by submerging yourself in water or by dousing the WP with water
from your canteen or any other source. Urine, a wet cloth, or mud can also
be used.

NOTE

Since WP is poisonous to the system, DO NOT
use grease or oil to smother the flame. The WP
will be absorbed into the body with the grease
or oil.

(3) Keep the WP particles covered with wet material to
exclude air until you can remove them or get them removed from your
skin.

(4) Remove the WP particles from the skin by brushing
them with a wet cloth and by picking them out with a knife, bayonet,
stick, or other available object.

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(5) Report to a medical facility for treatment as soon as
your mission permits.

6. Thickened fuel mixtures (napalm) have a tendency to cling to
clothing and body surfaces, thereby producing prolonged exposure and
severe burns. The first aid for these burns is the same as for other heat
burns. The heat and irritating gases given off by these combustible
mixtures may cause lung damage, which must be treated by a medical
officer.

c. Metal incendiaries pose special problems. Thermite and
thermate particles on the skin should be immediately cooled with water
and then removed. Even though thermate particles have their own
oxygen supply and continue to burn under water, it helps to cool them
with water. The first aid for these burns is the same as for other heat
burns. Particles of magnesium on the skin burn quickly and deeply. Like
other metal incendiaries, they must be removed. Ordinarily, the complete
removal of these particles should be done by trained personnel at a
medical treatment facihty, using local anesthesia. Immediate medical
treatment is required.

d. Oil and metal incendiaries have much the same effect on
contact with the skin and clothing as those discussed (b and c above).
Appropriate first aid measures for burns are described in Chapter 3.

7-14. First Aid for Biological Agents

We are concerned with victims of biological attacks and with treating
symptoms after the soldier becomes ill. However, we are more concerned
with preventive medicine and hygienic measures taken before the attack.
By accomplishing a few simple tasks we can minimize their effects.

a. Immunizations. In the military we are accustomed to keeping
inoculations up to date. To prepare for biological defense, every effort
must be taken to keep immunizations current. Based on enemy
capabilities and the geographic location of our operations, additional
immunizations may be required.

b. Food and Drink. Only approved food and water should be
consumed. In a suspected biological warfare environment, efforts in
monitoring food and water supplies must be increased. Properly treated
water and properly cooked food will destroy most biological agents.

c. Sanitation Measures.

(1) Maintain high standards of personal hygiene. This will
reduce the possibility of catching and spreading infectious diseases.

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(2) Avoid physical fatigue. Physical fatigue lowers the
body's resistance to disease. This, of course, is complemented by good
physical fitness.

(3) Stay out of quarantined areas.

(4) Report sickness promptly. This ensures timely medical
treatment and, more importantly, early diagnosis of the disease.

d. Medical Treatment of Casualties. Once a disease is identified,
standard medical treatment commences. This may be in the form of first
aid or treatment at a medical facility, depending on the seriousness of the
disease. Epidemics of serious diseases may require augmentation of field
medical facilities.

7-15. Toxins

Toxins are alleged to have been used in recent conflicts. Witnesses and
victims have described the agent as toxic rain (or yellow rain) because it
was reported to have been released from aircraft as a yellow powder or
liquid that covered the ground, structures, vegetation, and people.

a. Protective Measures. Individual protective measures
normally associated with persistent chemical agents will provide
protection against toxins. Measures include the use of the protective
mask with hood, and the overgarment ensemble with gloves and
overboots (mission-oriented protective posture level-4 [MOPP 4]).

6. Signs/Symptoms. The occurrence of the symptoms from
toxins may appear in a period of a few minutes to several hours
depending on the particular toxin, the individual susceptibility, and the
amount of toxin inhaled, ingested, or deposited on the skin. Symptoms
from toxins usually involve the nervous system but are often preceded by
less prominent symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cramps, or
burning distress of the stomach region. Typical neurological symptoms
often develop rapidly in severe cases, for example, visual disturbances,
inability to swallow, speech difficulty, muscle coordination, and sensory
abnormalities (numbness of mouth, throat, or extremities). Yellow rain
(mycotoxins) also may have hemorrhagic symptoms which could include
any/all of the following:

• Dizziness.

• Severe itching or tingling of the skin.

• Formation of multiple, small, hard blisters.

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• Coughing up blood.

• Shock (which could result in death).

c. First Aid Measures. Upon recognition of an attack employing
toxins or the onset (start) of symptoms listed above, you must
immediately take the following actions:

(1) Step ONE. STOP BREATHING, put on your
protective mask with hood, then resume breathing. Next, put on your
protective clothing.

(2) Step TWO. Should severe itching of the face become
unbearable, quickly—

• Loosen the cap on your canteen.

• Remove your helmet. Take and hold a deep breath
and remove your mask.

• While holding your breath, close your eyes and
flush your face with generous amounts of water.

CAUTION

DO NOT rub or scratch your eyes. Try not to
let the water run onto your clothing or
protective overgarments.

• Put your protective mask back on, seat it properly,
clear it, and check it for seal; then resume breathing.

• Put your helmet back on.

NOTE

The effectiveness of the M258A1 Skin Decon
Kit for biological agent decon is unknown at
this time; however, flushing the skin with large
amounts of water will reduce the effectiveness
of the toxins.

(3) Step THREE. If vomiting occurs, the mask should be
hfted momentarily and drained— while the eyes are closed and the breath
is held— and replaced, cleared, and sealed.

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d. Medical Assistance. If you suspect that you have been
exposed to toxins, you should seek medical assistance immediately.

7-16. Radiological

There is no direct first aid for radiological casualties. These casualties are
treated for their apparent conventional symptoms and injuries.

{

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CHAPTER 8

FIRST AID FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION

During actual combat, military operations continue around the clock, at
a constant pace, and often under severe weather conditions. Terrible
things happen in combat. During such periods the soldier's mental and
physical endurance will be pushed to the limit. Psychological first aid will
help sustain the soldier's mental/physical performance during normal
activities, and especially during military operations under extremely
adverse conditions and in hostile environments.

8-1. Explanation of Term "Psychological First Aid"

Psychological first aid is as natural and reasonable as physical first aid
and is just as familiar. When you were hurt as a child, the understanding
attitude of your parents did as much as the psychological effect of a
bandage or a disinfectant to ease the pain. Later, your disappointment or
grief was eased by supportive words from a friend. Certainly, taking a
walk and talking things out with a friend are familiar ways of deaHng
with an emotional crisis. The same natural feelings that make us want to
help a person who is injured make us want to give a helping hand to a
buddy who is upset. Psychological first aid really means nothing more
complicated than assisting people with emotional distress whether it
results from physical injury, disease, or excessive stress. Emotional
distress is not always as visible as a wound, a broken leg, or a reaction to
pain from physical damage. However, overexcitement, severe fe£ir,
excessive worry, deep depression, misdirected irritability and anger are
signs that stress has reached the point of interfering with effective
coping. The more noticeable the symptoms become, the more urgent the
need for you to be of help and the more important it is for you to know
HOW to help.

8-2. Importance of Psychological First Aid

First aid can be applied to stress reactions of the mind as well as to
physical injuries of the body. You must know how to give psychological
first aid to be able to help yourself, your buddies, and your unit in order
to keep performing the mission. Psychological first aid measures are
simple and easy to understand. Improvisation is in order, just as it is in
splinting a fracture. Your decision of what to do depends upon your
ability to observe the soldier and understand his needs. Time is on your
side, and so are the resources of the soldier you are helping. Making the
best use of resources requires ingenuity on your part. A stress reaction
resulting in poor judgment can cause injury or even death to yourself or
others on the battlefield. It can be even more dangerous if other persons
are affected by the judgment of an emotionally upset individual. If it is

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detected early enough, the affected soldier stands a good chance of
remaining in his unit as an effective member. If it is not detected early
and if the soldier becomes more and more emotionally upset, he may not
only be a threat to himself and to others, but he can also severely affect
the morale of the unit and jeopardize its mission.

8-3. Situations Requiring Psychological First Aid

• Psychological first aid (buddy aid) is most needed at the first
sign that a soldier cannot perform the mission because of emotional
distress. Stress is inevitable in combat, in hostage and terrorist
situations, and in civilian disasters, such as floods, hurricanes, tornadoes,
industrial and aircraft catastrophes. Most emotional reactions to such
situations are temporary, and the person can still carry on with
encouragement. Painful or disruptive symptoms may last for minutes,
hours, or a few days. However, if the stress symptoms are seriously
disabhng, they may be psychologically contagious and endanger not only
the emotionally upset individual but also the entire unit. In such
situations, you may be working beside someone who cannot handle the
impact of disaster. Even when there is no immediate danger of physical
injury, psychological harm may occur. For instance, if a person is unable
to function because of stress, it may cause that person to lose confidence
in himself. If self-confidence cannot be restored, the person then may
become psychologically crippled for life.

• Sometimes people continue to function well during the
disastrous event, but suffer from emotional scars which impair their job
performance or quality of Hfe at a later time. Painful memories and
dreams may recur for months and years and still be considered a normal
reaction. If the memories are so painful that the person must avoid all
situations which arouse these memories or if he becomes socially
withdrawn, or shows symptoms of anxiety, depression, or substance
abuse, he needs treatment. Experiences of police, firemen, emergency
medical technicians, and others who deal with disasters has proved that
the routine application of psychological first aid greatly reduces the
likelihood of future serious post-traumatic stress disorders. Thus,
applying psychological first aid as self-aid and buddy aid to all the
participants, including those who have functioned well, is beneficial.

8-4. Interrelation of Psychological and Physical First Aid

Psychological first aid should go hand in hand with physical first aid. The
discovery of a physical injury or cause for an inability to function does not
rule out the possibility of a psychological injury (or vice versa). A physical
injury and the circumstances surrounding it may actually cause an
emotional injury that is potentially more serious than the physical injury;
both injuries need treatment. The person suffering from pain, shock, fear of
serious damage to his body, or fear of death does not respond well to joking,

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indifference, or fearful-tearful attention. Fear and anxiety may take as high a
toU of the soldier's strength as does the loss of blood.

8-5. Goals of Psychological First Aid

The goals of psychological first aid are to—

• Be supportive; assist the soldier in dealing with his stress
reaction.

• Prevent, and if necessary control, behavior harmful to him
and to others.

• Return the soldier to duty as soon as possible after deaHng
with the stress reaction.

8-6. Respect for Others' Feelings

a. Accept the soldier you are trying to help without censorship
or ridicule. Accept his right to his own feelings. Even though your
feelings, beliefs, and behavior are different, DO NOT blame or make light
of him for the way he feels or acts. Your purpose is to help him in this
tough situation, not to be his critic. A person DOES NOT WANT to be
upset and worried; he would "snap out of it" if he could. When he seeks
help, he needs and expects consideration of his fears, not abrupt
dismissal or accusations. You may be impressed with the fact that you
made it through in good condition. You have no guarantee that the
situation will not be reversed the next time.

b. Realize that people are the products of a wide variety of
factors. All persons DO NOT react the same way to the same situations.
Each individual has complex needs and motivations, both conscious and
unconscious, that are uniquely his own. Often, the "straw that breaks the
camel's back" the one thing that finally causes the person to be
overloaded by the stressful situation is not the stressor itself, but some
other problem. Thus, an injury or an emotional catastrophe will have a
personal meaning for each individual. Even though you may not share
the reactions or feelings of another person and even though the reactions
seem foolish or pecuhar, you must realize that he feels as he does for a
reason. You can help him most by accepting this fact and by doing what
you can for him during this difficult time. He is doing the best he can
under the circumstances. Your positive assistance and trust may be what
he needs to do better.

8-7. Emotional and Physical Disability

CL Accept emotional disabiUty as being just as real as physical
disability. If a soldier's ankle is seriously sprained in a fall, no one

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(including the injured man himself) expects him to run right away. A
soldier's emotions may be temporarily strained by the overwhelming
stress of more"blood and guts" than he can take or by a large-scale
artillery attack. DO NOT demand that he pull himself together
immediately and carry on without a break. Some individuals can pull
themselves together immediately, but others cannot. The person whose
emotional stability has been disrupted has a disabilityjust as real as the
soldier who has sprained his ankle. There is an unfortunate tendency in
many people to regard as real only what they can see, such as a wound,
bleeding, or an X-ray of a diseased lung. Some people tend to assume that
damage involving a person's mind and emotions is just imagined, that he
is not really sick or injured, and that he could overcome his trouble by
using his will power.

b. The terms "it's all in your head," "snap out of it," and "get
control of yourself" are often used by people who believe they are being
helpful. Actually, these terms are expressions of hostility because they
show lack of understanding. They only emphasize weakness and
inadequacy. Such terms are of no use in psychological first aid. A
psychological patient or a physical patient with strong emotional
reactions to his injury does not want to feel as he does. He would like to
be effective, but he is temporarily overcome with either fear, anxiety,
grief, guilt, or fatigue. He feels lost and unable to control his emotions.
Reminding him of his failure to act as others do only makes him feel
worse. What he needs is calm, positive encouragement, such as
reminding him that others have confidence in his ability to pull together
and are also counting on him. Often this reassurance combined with
explicit instruction and encouragement to do a simple, but useful task
(that he knows how to do), will restore his effectiveness quickly.

8-8. Emotional Reaction to Injury

Every physically injured person has some emotional reaction to the fact
that he is injured.

a. A minor injury such as a cut finger causes an emotional
reaction in most people. It is normal for an injured person to feel upset.
The more severe the injury, the more insecure and fearful he becomes,
especially if the injury is to a body part which is highly valued. For
example, an injury to the eyes or the genitals, even though relatively
minor, is likely to be extremely upsetting. An injury to some other part of
the body may be especially disturbing to an individual for his own
particular reason. For example, an injury of the hand may be a terrifying
blow to a baseball pitcher or a pianist. A facial disfigurement may be
especially threatening to an actor.

6. An injured person always feels less secure, more anxious, and
more afraid not only because of what has happened to him but because of

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what he imagines may happen as a result of his injury. This fear and
insecurity may cause him to be irritable, stubborn, or unreasonable. He
also may seem uncooperative, unnecessarily difficult, or even
emotionally irrational. As you help him, always keep in mind that such
behavior has little or nothing to do with you personally. He needs your
patience, reassurance, encouragement and support. Even though he
seems disagreeable and ungrateful at first, ensure that he understands
you want to help him.

8-9. Emotional Reserve Strength of Distressed Soldiers

ReaUze that distressed soldiers have far more strength than appears at
first glance. An injured or sick person may not put his best foot forward.
The strong points of his personality are likely to be hidden beneath his
fear, anguish, and pain. It is easy to see only his failures even though he
worked efficiently beside you only a short time ago. With your aid he will
again become helpful. Whatever made him a good soldier, rifleman, or
buddy is still there; he is needed.

8-10. Battle Fatigue (and Other Combat Stress Reactions [CSR])

Rattle Fatigue is a temporary emotional disorder or inabihty to function,
experienced by a previously normal soldier as a reaction to the
overwhelming or cumulative stress of combat. By definition, battle
fatigue gets better with reassurance, rest, physical replenishment and
activities which restore confidence. Physical fatigue, or sleep loss,
although commonly present, is not necessary. All combat and combat
support troops are likely to feel battle fatigue under conditions of intense
and/or prolonged stress. They may even become battle fatigue casualties,
unable to perform their mission roles for hours or days. Other negative
behaviors may be CSRs, but are not called battle fatigue because they
need other treatment than simple rest, replenishment and restoration of
confidence. These negative CSRs include drug and alcohol abuse,
committing atrocities against enemy prisoners and noncombatants,
looting, desertion, and self-inflicted wounds. These harmful CSRs can
often be prevented by good psychological first £iid; however, if these
negative actions occur, these persons may require disciplinary action
instead of reassurance and rest.

8-11. Reactions to Stress

Most people react to misfortune or disasters (military or civilian,
threatened or actual) after the situation has passed. All people feel some
^ear. This fear may be greater than they have experienced at any other
Bime, or they may be more aware of their fear. In such a situation, they
should not be surprised if they feel shaky, become sweaty, nauseated or
confused. These reactions are normal and are not a cause for concern.

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However, some reactions, either short or long term, will cause problems if
left unchecked. The following are consequences of too much stress:

a. Emotional Reactions.

(1) The most common stress reactions are simply inefficient
performances, such as:

• Slow thinking (or reaction time).

• Difficulty sorting out the important from all the
noise and seeing what needs to be done.

• Difficulty getting started.

• Indecisiveness, trouble focusing attention.

• A tendency to do familiar tasks and be preoccupied
with familiar details. This can reach the point where the person is very
passive, such as just sitting or wandering about not knowing what to do.

(2) Much less common reactions to a disaster or accident
may be uncontrolled emotional outbursts, such as crying, screaming, or
laughing. Some soldiers will react in the opposite way. They will be very
withdrawn and silent and try to isolate themselves from everyone. These
soldiers should be encouraged to remain with their assigned unit.
Uncontrolled reactions may appear by themselves or in any combination
(the person may be crying uncontrollably one minute and then laughing
the next or he may lie down and babble like a child). In this state, the
person is restless and cannot keep still. He may run about, apparently
without purpose. Inside, he feels great rage or fear and his physical acts
may show this. In his anger he may indiscriminately strike out at others.

b. Loss of Adaptability.

(1) In a desperate attempt to get away from the danger
which has overwhelmed him, a person may panic and become confused.
In the midst of a mortar attack, he may suddenly lose the ability to hear
or see. His mental ability may be so impaired he cannot think clearly or
even follow simple commands. He may stand up in the midst of enemy
fire or rush into a burning building because his judgment is clouded and
he cannot understand the likely consequences of his behavior. He may
lose his ability to move (freezes) and may seem paralyzed. He may faint.

(2) In other cases, overwhelming stress may produce
symptoms which are often associated with head injuries. For example,
the person may appear dazed or be found wandering around aimlessly.

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He may appear confused and disoriented and may seem to have a
complete or partial loss of memory. In such cases, especially when no eye
witnesses can provide evidence that the person has NOT suffered a head
injury, it is necessary for medical personnel to provide rapid evaluation
for that possibility. DO NOT ALLOW THE SOLDIER TO EXPOSE
HIMSELF TO FURTHER PERSONAL DANGER UNTIL THE
CAUSE OF THE PROBLEM HAS BEEN DETERMINED.

c. Sleep Disturbance and Repetitions. A person who has been
overwhelmed by disaster or some other stress often has difficulty
sleeping. The soldier may experience nightmares related to the disaster,
such as dreaming that his wife, father, or other important person in his
life was killed in the disaster. Remember that nightmares, in themselves,
are not considered abnormal when they occur soon after a period of
intensive combat or disaster. As time passes, the nightmares usually
become less frequent and less intense. In extreme cases, a soldier, even
when awake, may think repeatedly of the disaster, feel as though it is
happening again, and act out parts of his stress over and over again. For
some persons, this repetitious reexperiencing of the stressful event may
be necessary for eventual recovery; therefore, it should not be
discouraged or viewed as abnormal. For the person reexperiencing the
event, such reaction may be disruptive and disturbing regardless of the
reassurance given him that it is perfectly normal. In such a situation, a
short cut that is often possible involves getting the person to talk
extensively, even repetitiously, about the experience or his feeHngs. This
should not be forced; rather, the person should be given repeated
opportunities and supportive encouragement to talk in private,
preferably to one person. This process is known as ventilation.

d. Other Factors. In studies of sudden civilian disasters, a rule
of thumb is that 70 to 80 percent of people will fall into the first category
(a above). Ten to 15 percent will show the more severe disturbances (b and
c above). Another 10 to 15 percent will work effectively and coolly. The
latter usually have had prior experience in disasters or have jobs that can
be applied effectively in the disaster situation. Military training, like the
training of police, fire, and emergency medical specialists in civilian jobs,
is designed to shift that so that 99 to 100 percent of the unit works
effectively. But sudden, unexpected horrors, combined with physical
fatigue, exhaustion, and distracting worries about the home front can
sometimes throw even well-trained individuals for a temporary loss.

I e. Psychiatric Complications. Although the behaviors described

(a through c above) usually diminish with time, some do not. A person

>who has not improved somewhat within a day, even though he has been
given warm food, time for sleep, and opportunity to ventilate, or who
becomes worse, deserves specialized medical/psychiatric care. Do not
wait to see if what he is experiencing will get better with time.

8-7

FM 21-11

I

8-12. Severe Stress or Battle Fatigue Reactions

You do not need specialized training to recognize severe stress or battle
fatigue reactions that will cause problems to the soldier, the unit, or the
mission. Reactions that are less severe, however, are more difficult to
detect. To determine whether a person needs help, you must observe him
to see whether he is doing something meaningful, performing his duties,
taking care of himself, or behaving in an unusual fashion or acting out of
character,

8-13. Application of Psychological First Aid

The emotionally disturbed soldier has built a barrier against fear. He
does this for his own protection, although he is probably not aware that
he is doing it. If he finds that he does not have to be afraid and that there
are normal, understandable things about him, he will feel safer in
dropping this barrier. Persistent efforts to make him realize that you
want to understand him will be reassuring, especially if you remain calm.
Nothing can cause an emotionally disturbed person to become even more
fearful than feeling that others are afraid of him. Try to remain calm.
Familiar things, such as a cup of coffee, the use of his name, attention to
a minor wound, being given a simple job to do, or the sight of familiar
people and activities will add to his ability to overcome his fear. He may
not respond well if you get excited, angry, or abrupt.

a. Ventilation. After the soldier becomes calmer, he is likely to
have dreams about the stressful event. He also may think about it when
he is awake or even repeat his personal reaction to the event. One benefit
of this natural pattern is that it helps him master the stress by going over
it just as one masters the initial fear of jumping from a diving board by
doing it over and over again. Eventually, it is difficult to remember how
frightening the event was initially. In giving first aid to the emotionally
disturbed soldier, you should let him follow this natural pattern.
Encourage him to talk. Be a good listener. Let him tell, in his own words,
what actually happened (or what he thinks happened). If home front
problems or worries have contributed to the stress, it will help him to talk
about them. Your patient Ustening will prove to him that you are
interested in him, and by describing his personal catastrophe, he can
work at mastering his fear. If he becomes overwhelmed in the telling,
suggest a cup of coffee or a break. Whatever you do, assure him that you
will listen again as soon as he is ready. Do try to help put the soldier's
perception of what happened back into realistic perspective; but, DO
NOT argue about it. For example, if the soldier feels guilty that he
survived while his teammates were all killed, reassure him that they
would be glad he is still alive and that others in the unit need him now. If
he feels he was responsible for their deaths because of some oversight or
mistake (which may be true), a nonpunishing, nonaccusing attitude may

8-8

i

J

FM 21-11

i

; help him reahze that accidents and mistakes do happen in the confusion
of war, but that Hfe, the unit, and the mission must go on. (These same
principles apply in civihan disaster settings as well.) With this
psychological first aid measure, most soldiers start toward recovery

, quickly.

b. Activity.

j (1) A person who is emotionally disturbed as the result of a

I combat action or a catastrophe is basically a casualty of anxiety and fear.

j He is disabled because he has become temporarily overwhelmed by

anxiety. A good way to control fear is through activity. Almost all

soldiers, for example, experience a considerable sense of anxiety and fear

I while they are poised, awaiting the opening of a big offensive; but this is

i normally reheved, and they actually feel better once they begin to move

, into action. They take pride in effective performance and pleasure in

i knowing that they are good soldiers, perhaps being completely unaware

that overcoming their initial fear was their first major accomplishment.

' (2) Useful activity is very beneficial to the emotionally

^disturbed soldier who is not physically incapacitated. After you help a
Psoldier get over his initial fear, help him to regain some self-confidence.
Make him reahze his job is continuing by finding him something useful to
do. Encourage him to be active. Get him to carry Htters, (but not the
severely injured), help load trucks, clean up debris, dig foxholes, or assist
with refugees. If possible, get him back to his usual duty. Seek out his
strong points and help him apply them. Avoid having him just sit
around. You may have to provide direction by telling him what to do and
where to do it. The instructions should be clear and simple; they should
be repeated; they should be reasonable and obviously possible. A person
who has panicked is likely to argue. Respect his feelings, but point out
more immediate, obtainable, and demanding needs. Channel his
excessive energy and, above all, DO NOT argue. If you cannot get him
interested in doing more profitable work, it may be necessary to enhst aid
in controlling his overactivity before it spreads to the group and results
in more panic. Prevent the spread of such infectious feehngs by
restraining and segregating if necessary.

(3) Involvement in activity helps a soldier in three ways:

• He forgets himself.

• He has an outlet for his excessive tensions.

^ • He proves to himself he can do something useful. It

is amazing how effective this is in helping a person overcome feelings of
fear, ineffectiveness, and uselessness.

8-9

FM 21-11

I

c. Rest. There are times, particularly in combat, when physical
exhaustion is a principal cause for emotional reactions. For the weary,
dirty soldier, adequate rest, good water to drink, warm food, and a change
of clothes, with an opportunity to bathe or shave may provide spectacular
results.

d. Group Activity. You have probably already noticed that a
person works, faces danger, and handles serious problems better if he is a
member of a closely-knit group. Each individual in such a group supports
the other members of the group. For example, you see group spirit in the
football team and in the school fraternity. Because the individuals share
the same interests, goals, and problems, they do more and better work;
furthermore, they are less worried because everyone is helping. It is this
group spirit that wins games or takes a strategic hill in battle. It is so
powerful that it is one of the most effective tools you have in your
"psychological first aid bag." Getting the soldier back into the group and
letting him see its orderly and effective activity will reestabUsh his sense
of belonging and security and will go far toward making him a useful
member of the unit.

8-14. Reactions and Limitations

i

a. Up to this point the discussion has been primarily about the
feelings of the emotionally distressed soldier. What about your feelings
toward him? Whatever the situation, you will have emotional reactions i
(conscious or unconscious) toward this soldier. Your reactions can either '
help or hinder your ability to help him. When you are tired or worried,
you may very easily become impatient with the person who is unusually
slow or who exaggerates. You may even feel resentful toward him. At
times when many physically wounded lie about you, it will be especially
natural for you to resent disabilities that you cannot see. Physical
wounds can be seen and easily accepted. Emotional reactions are more
difficult to accept as injuries. On the other hand, will you tend to be
overly sympathetic? Excessive sympathy for an incapacitated person ,
can be as harmful as negative feelings in your relationship with him. He
needs strong help, but not your sorrow. To overwhelm him with pity will
make him feel even more inadequate. You must expect your buddy to
recover, to be able to return to duty, and to become a useful soldier. This
expectation should be displayed in your behavior and attitude as well as
in what you say. If he can see your calmness, confidence, and competence,
he will be reassured and will feel a sense of greater security.

6. You may feel guilty at encouraging this soldier to recover and
return to an extremely dangerous situation, especially if you are to stay^
in a safer, more comfortable place. Remember though, that if he return^
to duty and does well, he will feel strong and whole. On the other hand, i™,
he is sent home as a psycho, he may have self-doubt and often disabling j
symptoms the rest of his life. I

8-10

FM 21-11

i

)

c. Another thing to remind yourself is that in combat someone
must fight in this soldier's place. This temporarily battle fatigued
soldier, if he returns to his unit and comrades, will be less Ukely to
overload again (or be wounded or killed) than will a new replacement.

d. Above all, you must guard against becoming impatient,
intolerant, and resentful, on one hand, and overly solicitous on the other.
Remember that such emotion will rarely help the soldier and can never
increase your ability to make clear decisions.

e. As with the physically injured soldier, the medical personnel
will take over the care of the emotionally distressed soldier who needs
this specific care as soon as possible. The first aid which he has received
from you will be of great value to his recovery.

f. Remember that every soldier (even you) has a potential
emotional overload point which varies from individual to individual, from
time to time, and from situation to situation. Because a soldier has
reacted abnormally to stress in the past does not necessarily mean he will
react the same way to the next stressful situation. Remember, any
soldier, as tough as he may seem, is capable of showing signs of anxiety
and stress. No one is absolutely immune.

8-15. Tables. See Tables 8-1, 8-2, and 8-3 for more information.

)

8-11

FM 21-11

Table 8-1. Mild Battle Fatigue

4

PHYSICAL SIGNS* EMOTIONAL SIGNS^

1. Trembling, tearful 1. Anxiety, indecisive

2. Jumpiness, nervous 2. Irritable, complaining

3. Cold sweat, dry mouth 3. Forgetful, unable

4. Pounding heart, to concentrate
dizziness 4. Insomnia, nightmares

5. Nausea, vomiting, 5, Easily startled by
diarrhea noises, movement

6. Fatigue 6. Grief, tearful

7. "Thousand-yard stare" 7. Anger, beginning to

lose confidence in self
and unit
8. Difficulty thinking,
speaking, and
communicating

SELF AND BUDDY AID

1. Continue mission performance, focus on immediate mission.

2. Expect soldier to perform assigned duties.

3. Remain calm at all times; be directive and in control.

4. Let soldier know his reaction is normal, and that there is nothing
seriously wrong with him.

5. Keep soldier informed of the situation, objectives, expectations,
and support. Control rumors.

6. Build soldier's confidence, talk about succeeding.

7. Keep soldier productive (when not resting) through recreational
activities, equipment maintenance.

8. Ensure soldier maintains good personal hygiene.

9. Ensure soldier eats, drinks, and sleeps as soon as possible.
10. Let soldier talk about his feelings. DO NOT "put down" his

feehngs of grief or worry. Give practical advice and put emotions
into perspective.

♦Most or all of these signs are present in mild battle fatigue. They can
be present in any normal soldier in combat yet he can still do his job.

I

i

i

8-12

FM 21-11

Table 8-2. More Serious Battle Fatigue

PHYSICAL SIGNS*

EMOTIONAL SIGNS*

1.

Constantly moves around

1.

Rapid and/or

2.

Flinching or ducking at

inappropriate talking

sudden sounds and

2.

Argumentative, reckless

movement

actions

3.

Shaking, trembhng

3.

Inattentive to personed

(whole body or arms)

hygiene

4.

Cannot use part of

4.

Indifferent to danger

body, no physical

5.

Memory loss

reason (hand, arm, legs)

6.

Severe stuttering,

5.

Cannot see, hear, or

mumbling, or cannot

feel (partial or

speak at all

complete loss)

7.

Insomnia, nightmares

6.

Physical exhaustion,

8.

Seeing or hearing

crying

things that do not exist

7.

Freezing under fire,

9.

Rapid emotional shifts

or total immobility

10.

Social withdrawal

8.

Vacant stares, staggers.

11.

Apathetic

sways when stands

12.

Hysterical outbursts

9.

Panic running under fire

13.

Frantic or strange behavior

TREATMENT PROCEDURES**

1. If soldier's behavior endangers the mission, self or others, do
whatever necessary to control soldier.

2. If soldier is upset, calmly talk him into cooperating.

3. If concerned about soldier's reliability:

• Unload soldier's weapon.

• Take weapon if seriously concerned.

• Physically restrain soldier only when necessary for safety or
transportation.

4. Reassure everyone that the signs are probably just battle fatigue
and will quickly improve.

5. If battle fatigue signs continue:

• Get soldier to a safer place.

• DO NOT leave soldier alone, keep someone he knows with him.

• Notify senior NCO or officer.

• Have soldier examined by medical personnel.

6. Give soldier easy tasks to do when not sleeping, eating, or resting.

7. Assure soldier he will return to full duty in 24 hours; and, return
soldier to normal duties as soon as he is ready.

*These signs are present in addition to the signs of mild battle
fatigue reaction.
**Do these procedures in addition to the self and buddy aid care.

8-13

FM 21-11

«

J)

Table 8-3. Preventive Measures to Combat Battle Fatigue

1. Welcome new members into your team, get to know them
quickly. If you are new, be active in making friends.

2. Be physically fit (strength, endurance, and agility).

3. Know and practice life-saving self and buddy aid.

4. Practice rapid relaxation techniques (FM 26-2).

5. Help each other out when things are tough at home or in the unit.

6. Keep informed; ask your leader questions, ignore rumors.

7. Work together to give everyone food, water, shelter, hygiene, and
sanitation,

8. Sleep when mission and safety permit, let everyone get time to
sleep.

• Sleep only in safe places and by SOP.

• If possible, sleep 6 to 9 hours per day.

• Try to get at least 4 hours sleep per day.

• Get good sleep before going on sustained operations.

• Catnap when you can, but allow time to wake up fully.

• Catch up on sleep after going without.

I

€

8-14

\

FM 21-11

APPENDIX A

FIRST AID CASE AND KITS,
DRESSINGS, AND BANDAGES

A-l. First Aid Case with Field Dressings and Bandages

Every soldier is issued a first aid case (Figure A-l A) with a field first aid
dressing encased in a plastic wrapper (Figure A-IB). He carries it at all
times for his use. The field first aid dressing is a standard sterile (germ-
free) compress or pad with bandages attached (Figure A-IC). This
dressing is used to cover the wound, to protect against further
contamination, and to stop bleeding (pressure dressing). When a soldier
administers first aid to another person, he must remember to use the
wounded person's dressing; he may need his own later. The soldier must
check his first aid case regularly and replace any used or missing
dressing. The field first aid dressing may normally be obtained through
the medical unit's assigned medical platoon or section.

t

OUTER EDGES -

Figure A-l. Field first aid case and dressing.

>

A-2. General Purpose First Aid Kits

General purpose first aid kits listed in paragraph A-3 are also hsted in
CTA 8-100. These kits are carried on Army vehicles, aircraft, and boats
for use by the operators, crew, and passengers. Individuals designated by
unit standing operating procedures (SOP) to be responsible for the kits
are required to check them regularly and replace all items used, or replace
the entire kit when necessary. The general purpose kit and its contents
can be obtained through the unit supply system.

A-1

FM 21-11

i

NOTE

Periodically check the dressings (for holes or
tears in the package) and the medicines (for
expiration date) that are in the first aid kits. If
necessary, replace defective or outdated items.

A-3. Contents of First Aid Case and Kits

The following items are listed in the Common Table of Allowances (CTA)
as indicated below. However, it is necessary to see referenced CTA for
stock numbers.

Unit of
CTA Nomenclature Issue Quantity

a. 50-900 CASE FIELD FIRST AID DRESSING each 1

Contents:

8-100 Dressing, first aid field, individual

troop, white, 4 by 7 inches each 1

i

8-100 FIRST AID KIT, general purpose each 1

(Rigid Case)

Contents:
Case, medical instrument and supply

set, plastic, rigid, size A,

7 1/2 inches long by 4 1/2 inches

wide by 2 3/4 inches high each 1

Ammonia inhalation solution, aromatic,

ampules, 1/3 ml, 10s package. 1

Povidone-iodine solution, USP: 10%,

1/2 fl oz, 50s box 1/50

Dressing, first aid, field, individual

troop, camouflaged, 4 by 7 inches each 3

Compress and bandage, camouflaged,

2 by 2 inches, 4s package. 1

Bandage, gauze, compressed,

camouflaged, 3 inches by 6 yards each 2

Bandage, muslin, compressed,

camouflaged, 37 by 37 by 52 inches each 1

Gauze, petrolatum, 3 by 36 inches, 3s package. 1

i

A 2

I

FM 21-11

Unit of
CTA Nomenclature Issue Quantity

Adhesive tape, surgical,

1 inch by 1 1/2 yards, 100s package. 3/100

Bandage, adhesive, 3/4 by 3 inches,

300s box , 18/300

Blade, surgical preparation razor,

straight, single edge, 5s package. 1

First aid kit, eye dressing each 1

Instruction card, artificial

respiration, mouth-to-mouth

resuscitation (Graphic Training

Aid 21-45) (in English) each 1

Instruction sheet, first aid

(in English) each 1

Instruction sheet and list of

contents (in English) each 1

8-100 FIRST AID KIT, general purpose each 1

(panel-mounted)
Contents:
Case, medical instrument and supply
set, nylon, nonrigid. No. 2,
7 1/2 inches long by 4 3/8 inches
wide by 4 1/2 inches high each 1

In Upper Ammonia Inhalation Solution,

Pocket aromatic, ampules, 1/3 ml, 10s package. 1

Compress and bandage, camouflaged,

2 by 2 inches, 4s package, 1

Bandage, muslin, compressed,

camouflaged, 37 by 37 by 52 inches each 1

Gauze, petrolatum, 3 by 36 inches, 12s.... package. 3/12

Blade, surgical preparation razor,

straight, single edge, 5s package. 1

In Lower Pad, Povidone-Iodine, 100s box 10/100

Pocket Dressing, first aid, field, individual

troop, camouflaged, 4 by 6 inches each 3

Bandage, gauze, compressed,

camouflaged, 3 inches by 6 yards each 2

Adhesive tape, surgical,

1 inch by 1 1/2 yards, 100s package. 3/100

>

\

A-3

FM 21-11

I

Unit of

CTA Nomenclature Issue Quantity

Bandage, adhesive, 3/4 by 3 inches,

300s box 18/300

First aid kit, eye dressing each 1

Instruction card, artificial

respiration, mouth-to-mouth

resuscitation (Graphic Training

Aid 21-45) (in English) each 1

Instruction sheet, first aid

(in EngHsh) each 1

Instruction sheet and list of

contents (in English) each 1

A-4. Dressings

Dressings are sterile pads or compresses used to cover wounds. They
usually are made of gauze or cotton wrapped in gauze (Figure A-IC). In
addition to the standard field first aid dressing, other dressings such as
sterile gauze compresses and small sterile compresses on adhesive strips
may be available under CTA 8-100. See paragraph A-3 above.

A-5. Standard Bandages

a. Standard bandages are made of gauze or muslin and are used
over a sterile dressing to secure the dressing in place, to close off its edge
from dirt and germs, and to create pressure on the wound and control
bleeding. A bandage can also support an injured part or secure a splint.

b. Tailed bandages may be attached to the dressing as indicated
on the field first aid dressing (Figure A-lC).

i

A-6. Triangular and Cravat (Swathe) Bandages

a. Triangular and cravat (or swathe) bandages (Figure A-2) are
fashioned from a triangular piece of mushn (37 by 37 by 52 inches)
provided in the general purpose first aid kit. If it is folded into a strip, it
is called a cravat. Two safety pins are packaged with each bandage.
These bandages are valuable in an emergency since they are easily
appHed.

A-4

i

FM 21-11

b. To improvise a triangular bandage, cut a square of available
material, slightly larger than 3 feet by 3 feet, and FOLD it
DIAGONALLY. If two bandages are needed, cut the material along the
DIAGONAL FOLD.

c. A cravat can be improvised from such common items as
T-shirts, other shirts, bed Hnens, trouser legs, scarfs, or any other item
made of pliable and durable material that can be folded, torn, or cut to the
desired size.

3 FEET

©

TRIANGULAR BANDAGE

©

CRAVAT (ONE FOLD)

0 y^^'vVv"

/;•'

CRAVAT (TWO FOLDS)

© ^SZ

K.

7777k

CRAVAT (THREE FOLDS)

Figure A-2. Triangular and cravat bandages
(Illustrated A thru E).

A- 5

FM 21-11

NOTES

A-6

FM 21-11

APPENDIX B

RESCUE AND TRANSPORTATION
PROCEDURES

B-l. General

A basic principle of first aid is to tieat the casualty before mo\'ing him.
However, adverse situations or conditions may jeopardize the lives of
both the rescuer and the casualty if this is done. It may be necessary /i>st
to rescue the casualty before first aid can be effectively or safely given.
The Ufe and/or the well-being of the casualty will depend as much upon
the manner in which he is rescued and transported as it will upon the
treatment he receives. Rescue actions must be done quickly and safely.
Careless or rough handhng of the casualty during rescue operations can
aggravate his injuries and possibly cause death.

B-2. Principles of Rescue Operations

a. When faced with the necessity of rescuing a casualty who is
threatened by hostile action, fire, water, or any other immediate hazard.
DO NOT take action without first determining the extent of the hazard
and your ability to handle the situation. DO NOT become a casualty.

b. The rescuer must evaluate the situation and analyze the
factors involved. This evaluation involves three major steps:

• Identify the task.

• Evaluate circumstances of the rescue.

• Plan the action.

B-3. Task (Rescue) Identification

First determine if a rescue attempt is actually needed. It is a waste of
time, equipment, and personnel to rescue someone not in need of
rescuing. It is also a waste to look for someone who is not lost or
needlessly risk the lives of the rescuer(s). In planning a rescue, attempt to
obtain the following information:

• Who, what, where, when, why, and how the situation
happened?

• How many casualties are involved and the nature of their
injuries?

B-1

FM 21-11

i

• What is the tactical situation?

• What are the terrain features and the location of the

casualties?

• Will there be adequate assistance available to aid in the
rescue/evacuation?

• Can treatment be provided at the scene; will the
casualties require movement to a safer location?

• What equipment will be required for the rescue
operation?

• Will decon procedures and equipment be required for
casualties, rescue personnel and rescue equipment?

B-4. Circumstances of the Rescue

a. After identifying the job (task) required, you must relate to
the circumstances under which you must work. Do you need additional
people, security, medical, or special rescue equipment? Are there
circumstances such as mountaiin rescue or aircraft accidents that may
require specialized skills? What is the weather like? Is the terrain
hazardous? How much time is available?

b. The time element will sometimes cause a rescuer to
compromise planning stages and/or treatment which can be given. A
realistic estimate of time available must be made as quickly as possible
to determine action time remaining. The key elements are the casualty's
condition and the environment.

c. Mass casualties are to be expected on the modern battlefield.
All problems or complexities of rescue are now multiplied by the number
of casualties encountered. In this case, time becomes the critical element.

B-5. Plan of Action

0. The casualty's abihty to endure is of primary importance in
estimating the time available. Age and physical condition will differ from
casualty to casualty. Therefore, to determine the time available, you will
have to consider—

• Endurance time of the casualty.

B-2

FM 21-11

• Type of situation.

• Personnel and/or equipment availability.

• Weather.

• Terrain.

6. In respect to terrain, you must consider altitude and
visibility. In some cases, the casualty may be of assistance because he
knows more about the particular terrain or situation than you do.
Maximum use of secure/reUable trails or roads is essential.

c. When taking weather into account, ensure that blankets
and/or rain gear are available. Even a mild rain can complicate a normally
simple rescue. In high altitudes and/or extreme cold and gusting winds,
the time available is critically shortened.

d. High altitudes and gusting winds minimize the ability of
fixed-wing or rotary wing aircraft to assist in operations. Rotary wing
aircraft may be available to remove casualties from cliffs or inaccessible
sites. These same aircraft can also transport the casualties to a medical
treatment facility in a comparatively short time. Aircraft, though vital
elements of search, rescue or evacuation, cannot be used in all situations.
For this reason, do not rely entirely on their presence. Reliance on aircraft
or specialized equipment is a poor substitute for careful planning,

B-6. Mass Casualties

In situations where there are multiple casualties, an orderly rescue may
involve some additional planning. To facilitate a mass casualty rescue or
evacuation, recognize separate stages.

• First Stage. Remove those personnel who are not trapped
among debris or who can be evacuated easily.

• Second Stage. Remove those personnel who may be
trapped by debris but require only the equipment on hand and a
minimum amount of time.

• Third Stage. Remove the remaining personnel who are
trapped in extremely difficult or time-consuming situations, such as
imder large amounts of debris or behind walls.

• Fourth Stage. Remove the dead.

B-3

FM 21-11

I

B-7. Proper Handling of Casualties

a. You may have saved the casualty's hfe through the
application of appropriate first aid measures. However, his life can be
lost through rough handling or careless transportation procedures.
Before you attempt to move the casualty—

• Evaluate the type and extent of his injury.

• Ensure that dressings over wounds are adequately
reinforced.

• Ensure that fractured bones are properly immobilized
and supported to prevent them from cutting through muscle, blood
vessels, and skin. Based upon your evaluation of the type and extent of
the casualty's injury and your knowledge of the various manual carries,
you must select the best possible method of manual transportation. If the
casualty is conscious, tell him how he is to be transported. This will help
allay his fear of movement and gain his cooperation and confidence.

b. Buddy aid for chemical agent casualties includes those
actions required to prevent an incapacitated casualty from receiving
additional injury from the effects of chemical hazards. If a casualty is
physically unable to decontaminate himself or administer the proper
chemical agent antidote, the casualty's buddy assists him and assumes
responsibility for his care. Buddy aid includes—

• Administering the proper chemical agent antidote.

• Decontaminating the incapacitated casualty's exposed

skin,
emplaced.

Ensuring that his protective ensemble remains correctly

• Maintaining respiration.

• Controlling bleeding.

• Providing other standard first aid measures.

• Transporting the casualty out of the contaminated area.

B-8, Transportation of Casualties

a Transportation of the sick and wounded is the responsibility
of medical personnel who have been provided special training and

B-4

FM 21-11

equipment. Therefore, unless a good reason for you to transport a
casualty arises, wait for some means of medical evacuation to be
provided. When the situation is urgent and you are unable to obtain
medical assistance or know that no medical evacuation facilities are
available, you will have to transport the casualty. For this reason, you
must know how to transport him without increasing the seriousness of
his condition.

b. Transporting a casualty by htter (FM 8-35) is safer and more
comfortable for him than by manual means; it is also easier for you.
Manual transportation, however, may be the only feasible method
because of the terrain or the combat situation; or it may be necessary to
save a life. In these situations, the casualty should be transferred to a
litter as soon as one can be made available or improvised.

B-9. Manual Carries (081-831-1040 and 081-831-1041)

Casualties carried by manual means must be carefully and correctly
handled, otherwise their injuries may become more serious or possibly
fatal. Situation permitting, evacuation or transport of a casualty should
be organized and unhurried. Each movement should be performed as
deliberately and gently as possible. Casualties should not be moved
before the type and extent of injuries are evaluated and the required
emergency medical treatment is given. The exception to this occurs when
the situation dictates immediate movement for safety purposes (for
example, it may be necessary to remove a casualty from a burning
vehicle); that is, the situation dictates that the urgency of casualty
movement outweighs the need to administer emergency medical
treatment. Manual carries are tiring for the bearer(s) and involve the risk
of increasing the severity of the casualty's injury. In some instances,
however, they are essential to save the casualty's life. Although manual
carries are accomplished by one or two bearers, the two-man carries are
used whenever possible. They provide more comfort to the casualty, are
less likely to aggravate his injuries, and are also less tiring for the
bearers, thus enabling them to carry him farther. The distance a casualty
can be carried depends on many factors, such as—

• Strength and endurance of the bearer(s).

• Weight of the casualty.

• Nature of the casualty's injury.

• Obstacles encountered during transport.

a. One-man Carries (081-831-1040).

B-5

FM 21-11

(1) Fireman's carry (081-831-1040). The fireman's carry
(Figure B-1) is one of the easiest ways for one person to carry another.
After an unconscious or disabled casualty has been properly positioned,
he is raised from the ground. An alternate method for raising him from
the ground is illustrated (Figure B-1 I). However, it should be used only
when the bearer beheves it to be safer for the casualty because of the
location of his wounds. When the alternate method is used, take care to
prevent the casualty's head from snapping back and causing a neck
injury. The steps for raising a casualty from the ground for the fireman's
carry are also used in other one-man carries.

\

I

I

©

KNEEL AT THE CASUALTY'S UNINJURED SIDE. PLACE HIS
ARMS ABOVE HIS HEAD AND CROSS HIS ANKLE FARTHER
FROM YOU OVER THE ONE CLOSER TO YOU. PLACE ONE OF
YOUR HANDS ON THE SHOULDER FARTHER FROM YOU AND
YOUR OTHER HAND IN THE AREA OF HIS HIP OR THIGH.

B J ROLL HIM TOWARD YOU ONTO HIS ABDOMEN.

Figure B-1. Fireman's carry (Illustrated A thru N).

I

B-6

FM 21-11

©

C ) AFTER ROLLING THE CASUALTY ONTO HIS ABDOMEN,
STRADDLE HIM; THEN PLACE YOUR HANDS UNDER HIS CHEST
AND LOCK THEM TOGETHER.

®

Dj RAISE/LIFT THE CASUALTY TO HIS KNEES
AS YOU MOVE BACKWARD.

©

E ) CONTINUE TO MOVE BACKWARD, THUS
STRAIGHTENING THE CASUALTY'S LEGS
AND LOCKING HIS KNEES.

Figure B-1. Continued.

B-7

FM 21-11

©

F ) WALK FORWARD, BRINGING THE CASUALTY TO
A STANDING POSITION BUT TILTED SLIGHTLY
BACKWARD TO PREVENT HIS KNEES FROM
BUCKLING.

«

i

©AS YOU MAINTAIN CONSTANT SUPPORT OF
THE CASUALTY WITH ONE ARM, FREE YOUR
OTHER ARM, QUICKLY GRASP HIS WRIST,
AND RAISE HIS ARM HIGH.

i

Figure B-1. Continued.

B-8

FM 21-11

©

INSTANTLY PASS YOUR HEAD UNDER HIS
RAISED ARM, RELEASING IT AS YOU PASS
UNDER IT.

I ) MOVE SWIFTLY TO FACE THE CASUALTY AND SECURE
YOUR ARMS AROUND HIS WAIST. IMMEDIATELY PLACE
YOUR FOOT BETWEEN HIS FEET AND SPREAD THEM
(APPROXIMATELY 6 TO 8 INCHES APART).

Figure B-1. Continued.

B-9

FM 21-11

©

NOTE

The alternate method of raising the casualty
from the ground should be used only when the
bearer believes it to be safer for the casualty
because of the location of his wounds. When
the alternate method is used, take care to
prevent the casualty's head from snapping
back and causing a neck injury.

ALTERNATE METHOD OF LIFTING.

fT| KNEEL ON ONE KNEE AT THE CASUALTY'S HEAD, FACING HIS
FEET, THEN EXTEND YOUR HANDS UNDER HIS ARMPITS,
DOWN HIS SIDES, AND ACROSS HIS BACK.

[2] AS YOU RISE, LIFT THE CASUALTY TO HIS
KNEES; THEN SECURE A LOWER HOLD AND
RAISE HIM TO A STANDING POSITION WITH
HIS KNEES LOCKED.

0\\

i

i

I

Figure B-l. Continued.

B-10

FM 21-11

|T| SECURE YOUR ARMS AROUND THE CASUALTY'S

WAIST, WITH HIS BODY TILTED SLIGHTLY BACKWARD
TO PREVENT HIS KNEES FROM BUCKLING. PLACE YOUR
FOOT BETWEEN HIS FEET AND SPREAD THEM (ABOUT
6 TO 8 INCHES APART).

®

K ) GRASP THE CASUALTY'S WRIST AND RAISE
HIS ARM HIGH OVER YOUR HEAD.

►

Figure B-1. Continued.

B-11

FM 21-11

i

©

STOOP/BEND DOWN AND PULL THE
CASUALTY'S ARM OVER AND DOWN
YOUR SHOULDER, THUS BRINGING
HIS BODY ACROSS YOUR SHOULDERS.
AT THE SAME TIME, PASS YOUR ARM
BETWEEN HIS LEGS.

i

Mj GRASP THE CASUALTY'S WRIST WITH

ONE HAND AND PLACE YOUR OTHER
HAND ON YOUR KNEE FOR SUPPORT.

f

Figure B-1. Continued.

B-12

FM 21-11

►

®

RISE WITH THE CASUALTY CORRECTLY POSITIONED.
YOUR OTHER HAND IS FREE FOR USE AS NEEDED.

>

Figure B-1. Continued.

(2) Support carry (081-831-1040). In the support carry

> (Figure B-2), the casualty must be able to walk or at least hop on one leg,
using the bearer as a crutch. This carry can be used to assist him as far as
he is able to walk or hop.

B-1 3

FM 21-11

RAISE THE CASUALTY TO A STANDING POSITION
FROM GROUND AS IN FIREMAN'S CARRY. GRASP
THE CASUALTY'S WRIST AND DRAW HIS ARM
AROUND YOUR NECK. PLACE YOUR ARM AROUND
HIS WAIST.

(THE CASUALTY IS THUS ABLE TO WALK, USING
YOU AS A CRUTCH.)

#

Figure B-2. Support carry.

(3) Arms carry (081-831-1040). The arms carry is used
when the casualty is unable to walk. This carry (Figure B-3) is useful
when carrying a casualty for a short distance and when placing him on a
htter.

I

RAISE/LIFT THE CASUALTY TO A STANDING
POSITION OFF GROUND AS IN FIREMAN'S
CARRY. PLACE ONE ARM UNDER THE
CASUALTY'S KNEES AND YOUR OTHER ARM
AROUND HIS BACK AND LIFT. CARRY
CASUALTY HIGH TO LESSEN FATIGUE.

i

Figure B-3. Arms carry.

B-14

FM 21-11

»

(4) Saddleback carry (081-831-1040). Only a conscious
casualty can be transported by the saddleback carry (Figure B-4),
because he must be able to hold onto the bearer's neck.

)

RAISE CASUALTY TO UPRIGHT POSITION AS IN FIREMAN'S
CARRY. SUPPORT CASUALTY BY PLACING AN ARM AROUND
HIS WAIST AND MOVE IN FRONT OF HIM (YOUR BACK TO HIM).
HAVE CASUALTY ENCIRCLE HIS ARMS AROUND YOUR NECK.
STOOP, RAISE HIM UPON YOUR BACK, AND CLASP YOUR
HANDS TOGETHER BENEATH HIS THIGHS IF POSSIBLE.

Figure B-4. Saddleback carry.

)

(5) Pack-strap carry (081-831-1040). This carry is used
when only a moderate distance wUl be traveled. In this carry (Figure B-5),
the casualty's weight rests high on the bearer's back. To eliminate the
possibility of injury to the casualty's arms, the bearer must hold the
casualty's arms in a palms-down position.

B-15

FM 21-11

®

LIFT CASUALTY FROM GROUND TO A STANDING
POSITION AS IN FIREMAN'S CARRY. SUPPORTING
THE CASUALTY WITH YOUR ARMS AROUND HIM,
GRASP HIS WRIST CLOSER TO YOU AND PLACE HIS
ARM OVER YOUR HEAD AND ACROSS YOUR
SHOULDER. MOVE IN FRONT OF HIM WHILE
SUPPORTING HIS WEIGHT AGAINST YOUR BACK.
GRASP HIS OTHER WRIST, AND PLACE THIS
ARM OVER YOUR SHOULDER.

I

BEND FORWARD AND RAISE/HOIST HIM AS
HIGH ON YOUR BACK AS POSSIBLE SO THAT
ALL HIS WEIGHT IS RESTING ON YOUR BACK.

€

Figure B-5. Pack-strap carry (Illustrated A and B).

B-16

FM 21-11

i

(6) Pistol-belt carry (081-831-1040). The pistol-belt carry
(Figure B-6) is the best one-man carry when the distance to be traveled is
long. The casualty is securely supported by a belt upon the shoulders of
the bearer. The hands of both the bearer and the casualty are left free for
carrying a weapon or equipment, climbing banks, or surmounting
obstacles. With his hands free and the casualty secured in place, the
bearer is also able to creep through shrubs and under low hanging
branches.

)

©

LINK TWO PISTOL BELTS (OR THREE, IF NECESSARY)
TOGETHER TO FORM A SLING. (IF PISTOL BELTS ARE NOT
AVAILABLE FOR USE, OTHER ITEMS, SUCH AS ONE RIFLE
SLING, TWO CRAVAT BANDAGES, TWO LITTER STRAPS, OR
ANY SUITABLE MATERIAL WHICH WILL NOT CUT OR BIND THE
CASUALTY, MAY BE USED.) PLACE THIS SLING UNDER THE
CASUALTY'S THIGHS AND LOWER BACK SO THAT A LOOP
EXTENDS FROM EACH SIDE.

\

LIE FACE UP BETWEEN THE CASUALTY'S OUTSTRETCHED
LEGS. THRUST YOUR ARMS THROUGH THE LOOPS, GRASP HIS
HAND AND TROUSER LEG ON HIS INJURED SIDE.

Figure B-6. Pistol-belt carry (Illustrated A thru F).

B-17

FM 21-11

©

ROLL TOWARD THE CASUALTY'S UNINJURED SIDE ONTO
YOUR ABDOMEN, BRINGING HIM ONTO YOUR BACK. ADJUST
SLING AS NECESSARY.

«

©

©

RISE TO A KNEELING POSITION. THE BELT
WILL HOLD THE CASUALTY IN PLACE.

E ) PLACE ONE HAND ON YOUR KNEE FOR
SUPPORT AND RISE TO AN UPRIGHT
POSITION.

I

Figure B-6. Continued.

B-18

FM 21-11

>

©

THE CASUALTY IS NOW SUPPORTED ON YOUR
SHOULDERS. CARRY THE CASUALTY WITH YOUR
HANDS FREE FOR USE IN RIFLE-FIRING, CLIMBING
BANKS, OR SURMOUNTING OBSTACLES.

)

Figure B-6. Continued.

(7) Pistol-belt drag (081-831-1040). The pistol-belt drag
(Figure B-7) and other drags are generally used for short distances. In
this drag the casualty is on his back. The pistol-belt drag is useful in
combat. The bearer and the casualty can remain closer to the ground in
this drag than in any other.

»

Figure B-7. Pistol-belt drag.

B-19

FM 21-11

«

ADJUST/EXTEND TWO PISTOL BELTS (OR THREE, IF
NECESSARY) OR SIMILAR OBJECTS TO THEIR FULL LENGTH
AND JOIN THEM TOGETHER TO MAKE ONE LOOP. ROLL THE
CASUALTY ONTO HIS BACK. PASS THE LOOP OVER THE
CASUALTY'S HEAD AND POSITION IT ACROSS HIS CHEST AND
UNDER HIS ARMPITS; THEN CROSS THE REMAINING PORTION
OF THE LOOP, THUS FORMING A FIGURE EIGHT. KEEP TENSION
ON THE BELTS SO THEY DO NOT BECOME UNHOOKED. LIE ON
YOUR SIDE FACING THE CASUALTY, RESTING ON YOUR
ELBOW. SLIP THE LOOP OVER YOUR ARM AND SHOULDER
THAT YOU ARE LEANING ON AND J\JHN AWAY FROM THE
CASUALTY ONTO YOUR ABDOMEN, THUS ENABLING YOU TO
DRAG THE CASUALTY AS YOU CRAWL.

Figure B-7. Continued.

(8) Neck drag (081-831-1040). The neck drag (Figure B-8) is
useful in combat because the bearer can transport the casualty when he
creeps behind a low wall or shrubbery, under a vehicle, or through a
culvert. This drag is used only if the casualty does not have a broken/
fractured arm. In this drag the casualty is on his back. If the casualty is
unconscious, protect his head from the ground.

1

TIE THE CASUALTY'S HANDS TOGETHER AT THE WRISTS. IF
CASUALTY IS CONSCIOUS, HE MAY CLASP HIS HANDS
TOGETHER AROUND YOUR NECK. STRADDLE THE CASUALTY
IN A KNEELING FACE-TO-FACE POSITION. LOOP THE
CASUALTY'S TIED HANDS OVER/AROUND YOUR NECK.
CRAWL FORWARD, LOOKING FORWARD, DRAGGING THE
CASUALTY WITH YOU. IF THE CASUALTY IS UNCONSCIOUS,
PROTECT HIS HEAD FROM THE GROUND.

«

Figure B-8. Neck drag.

B-20

FM 21-11

>

(9) Cradle drop drag (081-831-1040). The cradle drop drag
(Figure B-9) is effective in moving a casualty up or down steps. In this
drag the casualty is lying down.

I

0

)

WITH THE CASUALTY LYING ON HIS BACK, KNEEL AT HIS
HEAD. THEN SLIDE YOUR HANDS, WITH PALMS UP, UNDER
THE CASUALTY'S SHOULDERS AND GET A FIRM HOLD UNDER
HIS ARMPITS.

)

PARTIALLY RISE, SUPPORTING THE CASUALTY'S HEAD ON
ONE OF YOUR FOREARMS. (YOU MAY BRING YOUR ELBOWS
TOGETHER AND LET THE CASUALTY'S HEAD REST ON BOTH
OF YOUR FOREARMS.)

Figure B-9. Cradle drop drag (Illustrated A thru D).

B-21

FM 21-11

«

WITH THE CASUALTY IN A SEMI-SITTING POSITION,
RISE AND DRAG THE CASUALTY BACKWARDS.

''^'^lita,

'm<^^

^^

\

©

THEN BACK DOWN THE STEPS, SUPPORTING THE
CASUALTY'S HEAD AND BODY AND LETTING HIS HIPS AND
LEGS DROP FROM STEP TO STEP. IF THE CASUALTY NEEDS TO
BE MOVED UP THE STEPS, THEN YOU SHOULD BACK UP THE
STEPS, USING THE SAME PROCEDURE.

Figure B-9. Continued.

i

B-22

;

FM 21-11

b. Two-man Carries (081-831-1041).

(1) Two-man support carry (081-831-1041). The two-man
support carry (Figure B-10) can be used in transporting both conscious or
unconscious casualties. If the casualty is taller than the bearers, it may
be necessary for the bearers to lift the casualty's legs and let them rest on
their forearms.

)

©

)

TWO BEARERS HELP THE CASUALTY TO HIS FEET AND
SUPPORT HIM WITH THEIR ARMS AROUND HIS WAIST. THEY
GRASP THE CASUALTY'S WRISTS AND DRAW HIS ARMS
AROUND THEIR NECKS.

Figure B-10. Two-man support carry (Illustrated A and B).

B-23

FM 21-11

«

/^\M

IF A CASUALTY IS TALLER THAN THE BEARERS, IT MAY BE
NECESSARY FOR THE BEARERS TO LIFT HIS LEGS AND LET
THEM REST ON THEIR FOREARMS.

Figure B-10. Continued.

I

(2) Two-man arms carry (081-831-1041). The two-man arms
carry (Figure B-11) is useful in carrying a casualty for a moderate
distance. It is also useful for placing him on a litter. To lessen fatigue, the
bearers should carry him high and as close to their chests as possible. In
extreme emergencies when there is no time to obtain a board, this manual
carry is the safest one for transporting a casualty with a back/neck
injury. Use two additional bearers to keep his head and legs in alignment
with his body.

I

B-24

FM 21-11

©

\\\W///

TWO BEARERS KNEEL AT ONE SIDE OF THE CASUALTY AND
PLACE THEIR ARMS BENEATH THE CASUALTY'S BACK
(SHOULDERS), WAIST, HIPS, AND KNEES.

THE BEARERS LIFT THE CASUALTY AS THEY RISE TO THEIR
KNEES.

NOTE

Keeping the casualty's body level will prevent
unnecessary movement and further injury.

Figure B-11. Two-man arms carry (Illustrated A thru D).

B-25

FM 21-11

©

C J AS THE BEARERS RISE TO THEIR FEET, THEY TURN THE
CASUALTY TOWARD THEIR CHESTS.

®

THEY CARRY HIM HIGH TO LESSEN FATIGUE.

Figure B-11. Continued.

B-26

FM 21-11

»

(3) Two-man fore-and-aft carry (081-831-1041). The fore-
and- aft carry (Figure B-12) is a most useful two-man carry for transporting a
casualty for a long distance. The taller of the two bearers should position
himself at the casualty's head. By altering this carry so that both bearers face
the casualty, it is also useful for placing him on a litter.

)

©

THE SHORTER BEARER SPREADS THE CASUALTY'S LEGS,
KNEELS BETWEEN THE LEGS WITH HIS BACK TO THE
CASUALTY, AND POSITIONS HIS HANDS BEHIND THE
CASUALTY'S KNEES. THE OTHER (TALLER) BEARER KNEELS AT
THE CASUALTY'S HEAD, SLIDES HIS HANDS UNDER THE
ARMS AND ACROSS, AND LOCKS HIS HANDS TOGETHER.

\

NOTE

The taller of the two bearers should position
himself at the casualty's head.

Figure B-12. Two-man fore-and-aft carry (Illustrated A thru C).

B-27

FM 21-11

©

THE BEARERS RISE TOGETHER,
LIFTING THE CASUALTY.

ALTERNATE POSITION-
FACING CASUALTY.

NOTE

By altering the carry so that both bearers face
the casualty, it is also useful for placing him on
a litter.

Figure B-12. Continued.

B-28

FM 21-11

in placing him on a litter. ^ casualty for a short distance and

>

©

B ) BACK VIEW

FRONT VIEW

WITH CASUALTY LYING ON HIS BACK A
BEARER KNEELS ON EACH SIDE OF HIM

PAVsE'.'l.'^f ^'''' ^"'- ^^^^ ^^A^ER
PASSES HIS ARMS UNDER THE

CASUALTY'S THIGHS AND BACK AND

GRASPS THE OTHER BEARER'S WRISTS

THE BEARERS RISE, LIFTING THE CASUALTY

Figure B-13. Two-hand seat

carry (Illustrated A and B).

B-29

FIVI 21-11

(I

(5) Four-hand seat carry (081-831-1041). Only a conscious
casualty can be transported with the four-hand seat carry (Figure B-14)
because he must help support himself by placing his arms around the
bearers' shoulders. This carry is especially useful in transporting the casualty
with a head or foot injury and is used when the distance to be traveled is
moderate. It is also useful for placing a casualty on a Utter.

©

EACH BEARER GRASPS ONE OF HIS
WRISTS AND ONE OF THE OTHER
BEARER'S WRISTS, THUS FORMING
A PACKSADDLE.

THE TWO BEARERS LOWER THEMSELVES
SUFFICIENTLY FOR THE CASUALTY TO
SIT ON THE PACKSADDLE; THEN THEY
HAVE THE CASUALTY PLACE HIS ARMS
AROUND THEIR SHOULDERS FOR SUPPORT
BEFORE THEY RISE TO AN UPRIGHT
POSITION.

Figure B-14. Four-hand seat carry (Illustrated A and B).

B-30

FM 21-11

>

B-10. Improvised Litters (Figures B-15 through B-17)
(081-831-1041)

Two men can support or carry a casualty without equipment for only
short distances. By using available materials to improvise equipment,
the casualty can be transported greater distances by two or more
rescuers.

a. There are times when a casualty may have to be moved and a
standard litter is not available. The distance may be too great for manual
carries or the casualty may have an injury, such as a fractured neck,
back, hip, or thigh that would be aggravated by manual transportation.
In these situations, litters can be improvised from certain materials at
hand. Improvised litters are emergency measures and must be replaced
by standard litters at the first opportunity to ensure the comfort and
safety of the casualty,

b. Many different types of Utters can be improvised, depending
upon the materials available. Satisfactory litters can be made by securing
poles inside such items as blankets, ponchos, shelter halves, teirpaulins,
jackets, shirts, sacks, bags, and bed tickings (fabric covers of
mattresses). Poles can be improvised from strong branches, tent
supports, skis, and other like items. Most flat-surface objects of suitable
size can also be used as litters. Such objects include boards, doors,
window shutters, benches, ladders, cots, and poles tied together. If
possible, these objects should be padded.

c. If no poles can be obtained, a large item such as a blanket can
be rolled from both sides toward the center. The rolls then can be used to
obtain a firm grip when carrying the casualty. If a poncho is used, make
sure the hood is up and under the casualty and is not dragging on the
ground.

d. The important thing to remember is that an improvised litter
must be well constructed to avoid the risk of dropping or further injuring
the casualty.

e. Improvised litters may be used when the distance may be too
long (far) for manual carries or the casualty has an injury which may be
aggravated by manual transportation.

B-31

FM 21-11

«

©

OPEN THE PONCHO AND LAY THE TWO
POLES (OR LIMBS) LENGTHWISE ACROSS
THE CENTER. REACH IN AND PULL THE
HOOD TOWARD YOU AND LAY IT FLAT
ON THE PONCHO.

«

B ) FOLD THE PONCHO OVER THE FIRST POLE.

©FOLD THE REMAINING FREE EDGES OF
THE PONCHO OVER THE SECOND POLE.

Figure B-15. Improvised litter with poncho and poles
(Illustrated A thru C).

«

B-32

FM 21-11

©

A ) BUTTON TWO OR THREE SHIRTS
OR JACKETS AND TURN THEM
INSIDE OUT, LEAVING THE SLEEVES
INSIDE.

B) PASS POLES THROUGH THE
SLEEVES.

Figure B-16. Improvised litter made with poles and jackets
(Illustrated A and B).

Figure B-17. Improvised litters made by inserting poles
through sacks or by rolling blanket.

B-33

FM 21-11

<i

/. Any of the appropriate carries may be used to place a
casualty on a litter. These carries are:

• The one-man arms carry (Figure B-3).

• The two-man arms carry (Figure B-11).

• The two-man fore-and-aft carry (Figure B-12).

• The two-hand seat carry (Figure B-13).

• The four-hand seat carry (Figure B-14).

WARNING

Unless there is an immediate life-threatening
situation (such as fire, explosion), DO NOT
move the casualty with a suspected back or
neck injury. Seek medical personnel for
guidance on how to transport.

g. Either two or four soldiers (head/foot) may be used to Hft a
htter. To Hft the htter, follow the procedure below.

(1) Raise the litter at the same time as the other
carriers/bearers.

(2) Keep the casualty as level as possible.

NOTE

Use caution when transporting on a sloping
incline/hill.

i

«

B-34

FM 21-11

APPENDIX C

COMMON PROBLEMS/CONDITIONS

Section I. HEALTH MAINTENANCE

C-1. General

History has often demonstrated that the course of battle is influenced
more by the health of the troops than by strategy or tactics. Health is
largely a personed responsibility. Correct cleanliness habits, regular
exercise, and good nutrition have much control over a person's well-
being. Good health does not just happen; it comes with conscious effort
and good habits. This appendix outlines some basic principles that
promote good health.

C-2. Personal Hygiene

a Because of the close living quarters frequently found in an
Army environment, personal hygiene is extremely important. Disease or
illness can spread and rapidly affect an entire group.

b. Uncleanliness or disagreeable odors affect the morale of
workmates. A daily bath or shower assists in preventing body odor and is
necessary to maintain cleanliness. A bath or shower also aids in
preventing common skin diseases. Medicated powders and deodorants
help keep the skin dry. Special care of the feet is also important. You
should wash your feet daily and keep them dry.

C-3. Diarrhea and Dysentery

a. Poor sanitation can contribute to conditions which may
result in diarrhea and dysentery (a medical term apphed to a number of
intestinal disorders characterized by stomach pain and diarrhea with
passage of mucus and blood). Medical personnel can advise regarding the
cause and degree of illness. Remember, however, that intestinal diseases
are usually spread through contact with infectious organisms which can
be spread in human waste, by flies and other insects, or in improperly
prepared or disinfected food and water supplies.

b. Keep in mind the following principles that will assist you in
preventing diarrhea and/or dysentery.

(1) Fill your canteen with treated water at every chance.
When treated water is not available you must disinfect the water in your
canteen by boiling it or using either iodine tablets or chlorine ampules.
Iodine tablets or chlorine ampules can be obtained through your unit
supply channels or field sanitation team.

C-1

FM 21-11

4

(a) To treat (disinfect) water by boiling, bring water to
a rolling boil in your canteen cup for 5 to 10 minutes. In an emergency,
boiling water for even 15 seconds will help. Allow the water to cool before
drinking.

( 6 ) To treat water with iodine—

• Remove the cap from your ceinteen and fill the
canteen with the cleanest water available.

• Put one tablet in clear water or two tablets in
very cold or cloudy water. Double amounts if using a two quart canteen.

• Replace the cap, wait 5 minutes, then shake
the canteen. Loosen the cap and tip the canteen over to allow leakage
around the canteen threads. Tighten the cap and wait an additional 25
minutes before drinking.

( c) To treat water with chlorine—

• Remove the cap from your canteen and fill
your canteen with the cleanest water available.

• Mix one ampule of chlorine with one-half
canteen cup of water, stir the mixture with a mess kit spoon until the
contents are dissolved. Take care not to cut your hands when breaking
open the glass ampule.

• Pour one canteen capful of the chlorine
solution into your one quart canteen of water.

• Replace the cap and shake the canteen. Loosen
the cap and tip the canteen over to allow leakage around the threads.
Tighten the cap and wait 30 minutes before drinking.

(2) DO NOT buy food, drinks, or ice from civilian vendors
unless approved by medical personnel.

(3) Wash your hands for at least 30 seconds after using the
latrine or before touching food.

(4) Wash your mess kit in a mess kit laundry or with
treated water.

(5) Food waste should be disposed of properly (covered
container, plastic bags or buried) to prevent flies from using it as a
breeding area.

C-2

FM 21-11

C-4. Dental Hygiene

a. Care of the mouth and teeth by daily use of a toothbrush and
dental floss after meals is essential. This care may prevent gum disease,
infection, and tooth decay.

b. One of the major causes of tooth decay and gum disease is
plaque. Plaque is an almost invisible film of decomposed food particles
and millions of living bacteria. To prevent dental diseases, you must
effectively remove this destructive plaque.

C-5. Drug (Substance) Abuse

a. Drug abuse is a serious problem in the military. It affects
combat readiness, job performance, and the health of military personnel
and their families. More specifically, drug abuse affects the individual. It
costs millions of dollars in lost time and productivity.

b. The reasons for drug abuse are as different as the people who
abuse the use of them. Generally, people seem to take drugs to change the
way they feel. They may want to feel better or to feel happier. They may
want to escape from pain, stress, or frustration. Some may want to
forget. Some may want to be accepted or to be sociable. Some people take
drugs to escape boredom; some take drugs because they are curious. Peer
pressure can also be a very strong reason to use drugs.

c. People often feel better about themselves when they use
drugs or alcohol, but the effects do not last. Drugs never solve problems;
they just postpone or compound them. People who abuse alcohol or drugs
to solve one problem run the risk of continued drug use that creates new
problems and makes old problems worse.

d. Drug abuse is very serious and may cause serious health
problems. Drug abuse may cause mental incapacitation and even cause
death.

C-6. Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Sexually transmitted diseases (STD) formerly known as venereal
diseases are caused by organisms normally transmitted through sexual
intercourse. Individuads should use a prophylactic (condom) during
sexual intercourse unless they have sex only within marriage or with one,
steady noninfected person of the opposite sex. Another good habit is to
wash the sexual parts and urinate immediately after sexual intercourse.
Some serious STDs include nonspecific urethritis (chlamydia), gonorrhea,
syphilis and Hepatitis B and the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(AIDS). Prevention of one type of STD through responsible sex, protects

C-3

FM 21-11

both partners from all STD. Seek the best medical attention if any
discharge or blisters are found on your sexual parts.

a. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS is the
end disease stage of the HIV infection. The HIV infection is contagious,
but it cannot be spread in the same manner as a common cold, measles, or
chicken pox. AIDS is contagious, however, in the same way that sexually
transmitted diseases, such as syphilis and gonorrhea, are contagious.
AIDS can also be spread through the sharing of intravenous drug needles
and syringes used for injecting illicit drugs.

b. High Risk Group. Today those practicing high risk behavior
who become infected with the AIDS virus are found mainly among
homosexual and bisexual persons and intravenous drug users.
Heterosexual transmission is expected to account for an increasing
proportion of those who become infected with the AIDS virus in the
future.

(1) AIDS caused by virus. The letters A-I-D-S stand for
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. When a person is sick with
AIDS, he is in the final stages of a series of health problems caused by a
virus (germ) that can be passed from one person to another chiefly during
sexual contact or through the sharing of intravenous drug needles and
syringes used for "shooting" drugs. Scientists have named the AIDS
virus "HIV." The HIV attacks a person's immune system and damages
his ability to fight other disease. Without a functioning immune system
to ward off other germs, he now becomes vulnerable to becoming infected
by bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and other viruses and malignancies, which
may cause life-threatening illness, such as pneumonia, meningitis, and
cancer.

(2) No known cure. There is presently no cure for AIDS.
There is presently no vaccine to prevent AIDS.

(3) Virus invades blood stream. When the AIDS virus
enters the blood stream, it begins to attack certain white blood cells
(T-Lymphocytes). Substances called antibodies are produced by the
body. These antibodies can be detected in the blood by a simple test,
usually two weeks to three months after infection. Even before the
antibody test is positive, the victim can pass the virus to others.

(4) Signs and Symptoms.

• Some people remain apparently well after infection
with the AIDS virus. They may have no physically apparent symptom of
illness. However, if proper precautions are not used with sexual contacts
and/or intravenous drug use, these infected individuals can spread the
virus to others.

1 The Surgeon General's Report on Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (U.S. Public
Health Service. 1986).

C-4

FM 21-11

• The AIDS virus may also attack the nervous
system and cause delayed damage to the brain. This damage may take
years to develop and the symptoms may show up as memory loss,
indifference, loss of coordination, partial paralysis, or mental disorder.
These symptoms may occur alone, or with other symptoms mentioned
earlier.

(5) AIDS: the present situation. The number of people
estimated to be infected with the AIDS virus in the United States is over
1.5 million as of April 1988. In certain parts of central Africa 50% of the
sexually active population is infected with HIV. The number of persons
known to have AIDS in the United States to date is over 55,000; of these,
about half have died of the disease. There is no cure. The others will soon
die from their disease. Most scientists predict that all HIV infected
persons will develop AIDS sooner or later, if they don't die of other
causes first.

(6) Sex between men. Men who have sexual relations with
other men are especially at risk. About 70% of AIDS victims throughout
the country are male homosexuals and bisexuals. This percentage
probably will decline as heterosexual transmission increases. Infection
results from a sexual relationship with an infected person.

(7) Multiple partners. The risk of infection increases
according to the number of sexual partners one has, male or female. The
more partners you have, the greater the risk of becoming infected with
the AIDS virus.

(8) How exposed. Although the AIDS virus is found in
several body fluids, a person acquires the virus during sexual contact
with an infected person's blood or semen and possibly vaginal secretions.
The virus then enters a person's blood stream through their rectum,
vagina or penis. Small (unseen by the naked eye) tears in the surface
lining of the vagina or rectum may occur during insertion of the penis,
fingers, or other objects, thus opening an avenue for entrance of the virus
directly into the blood stream.

(9) Prevention of sexual transmission— know your partner.
Couples who maintain mutually faithful monogamous relationships (only
one continuing sexual partner) are protected from AIDS through sexual
transmission. If you have been faithful for at least five years and your
partner has been faithful too, neither of you is at risk.

(10) Mother can infect newborn. If a woman is infected with
the AIDS virus and becomes pregnant, she has about a 50% chance of
passing the AIDS virus to her unborn child.

C-5

FM 21-11

i

(11) Summary. AIDS affects certain groups of the
population. Homosexual and bisexual persons who have had sexual
contact with other homosexual or bisexual persons as well as those who
''shoot'' street drugs are at greatest risk of exposure, infections and
eventual death. Sexual partners of these high risk individuals are at risk,
as well as any children born to women who carry the virus. Heterosexual
persons are increasingly at risk.

(12) Donating blood. Donating blood is not risky at all. You
cannot get AIDS by donating blood.

(13) Receiving blood. High risk persons and every blood
donation is now tested for the presence of antibodies to the AIDS virus.
Blood that shows exposure to the AIDS virus by the presence of
antibodies is not used either for transfusion or for the manufacture of
blood products. Blood banks are as safe as current technology can make
them. Because antibodies do not form immediately after exposure to the
virus, a newly infected person may unknowingly donate blood after
becoming infected but before his antibody test becomes positive.

(14) Testing of military personnel. You may wonder why the
Department of Defense currently tests its uniformed services personnel
for presence of the AIDS virus antibody. The mihtary feels this
procedure is necessary because the uniformed services act as their own
blood bank in a combat situation. They also need to protect new recruits
(who unknowingly may be AIDS virus carriers) from receiving live virus
vaccines. HIV antibody positive soldiers may not be assigned overseas
(includes Alaska and Hawaii). They must be rechecked every six months
to determine if the disease has become worse. If the disease has
progressed, they are discharged from the Army (policy per AR 600-110).
This regulation requires that all soldiers receive annual education classes
on AIDS.

Section II. FIRST AID FOR COMMON PROBLEMS

C-7. Heat Rash (or Prickly Heat)

a. Description. Heat rash is a skin rash caused by the blockage
of the sweat glands because of hot, humid weather or because of fever. It
appears as a rash of patches of tiny reddish pinpoints that itch.

b. First Aid. Wear clothing that is light and loose and/or
uncover the affected area. Use skin powders or lotion.

C-6

FM 21-11

>

C-8. Contact Poisoning (Skin Rashes)

CL General.

(1) Poison Ivy grows as a small plant (vine or shrub) and
has three glossy leaflets (Figure C-1).

Figure C-1. Poison ivy.

(2) Poison Oak grows in shrub or vine form; and has
clusters of three leaflets with wavy edges (Figure C-2).

Figure C-2. Western poison oak.

(3) Poison Sumac grows as a shrub or small tree. Leaflets
grow opposite each other with one at tip (Figure C-3).

►

Figure C-3. Poison sumac.

C-7

FM 21-11

4

b. Signs/Symptoms.

• Redness.

• Swelling.

• Itching.

• Rashes or blisters.

• Burning sensation.

• General headaches and fever.

NOTE

Secondary infection may occur when blisters
break.

c. First Aid.

(1) Expose the affected area: remove clothing and jewelry.

(2) Cleanse affected area with soap and water.

(3) Apply rubbing alcohol, if available, to the affected

areas.

burning).

I

(4) Apply calamine lotion (helps relieve itching and

(5) Avoid dressing the affected area.

(6) Seek medical help, evacuate if necessary. (If rash is
severe, or on face or genitals, seek medical help.)

C-9. Care of the Feet

Proper foot care is essential for all soldiers in order to maintain their
optimal health and physical fitness. To reduce the possibilities of serious
foot trouble, observe the following rules:

a. Foot hygiene is important. Wash and dry feet thoroughly,
especially between the toes. Soldiers who perspire freely should apply
powder lightly and evenly twice a day.

C-8

FM 21-11

i

b. Properly fitted shoes/boots should be the only ones issued.
There should be no binding or pressure spots.

c. Clean, properly fitting socks should be changed and washed
daily. Avoid socks with holes or poorly darned areas; they may cause
blisters.

d. Attend promptly to common medical problems such as
blisters, ingrown toenails, and fungus infections (Hke athlete's foot).

e. Foot marches are a severe test for the feet. Use only properly
fitted footgear and socks. Footgear should be completely broken-in. DO
NOT break-in new footgear on a long march. Any bhsters, sores, and so
forth, should be treated promptly. Keep the feet as dry as possible on the
march; carry extra socks and change if feet get wet (socks can be dried by
putting them under your shirt, around your waist or hanging on a rack).
Inspect feet during rest breaks. Bring persistent complaints to the
attention of medical personnel.

C-10. Blisters

Blisters are a common problem caused by friction. They may appear on
such areas as the toes, heels, or the palm of the hand (anywhere friction
may occur). Unless treated promptly and correctly, they may become
infected. The best treatment for blisters is PREVENTION.

a. Unbroken Blisters.

(1) If unbroken, and where you can allow it to remain so
without pressure, protect the blister (pad around it) and allow fluid to
absorb (Figure C-4).

PROTECT AN UNBROKEN BLISTER

Figure C-4. Protect an unbroken blister.

C-9

FM 21-11

(I

(2) If unbroken, but where it probably will break (such as on
your toe during a march) drain the blister. Wash area. Then take a
sterilized needle (use alcohol or a match flame) and make a hole at the
edge of the blister (Figure C-5). Use a clean cloth or gauze and gently
apply pressure, thus removing the fluid. Cover with a sterile (if possible)
dressing or clean cloth to protect the area.

©

WASH BLISTER AND SURROUNDING AREA
WITH SOAP AND WATER.

STERILIZE NEEDLE BY HEATING IT IN A
FLAME UNTIL IT TURNS RED.

i

OPEN BLISTER BY STICKING IT AT THE
LOWER EDGE.

APPLY AND SECURE COMPRESS.

®

«

Figure C-5. Drain the blister likely to break.

C-10

FM 21-11

>

b. Broken Blisters.

Treat a broken blister as an open wound. Use the same procedure as
stated above (washing, covering, and so forth). If the skin is torn and raw
skin is exposed, pad around the area to protect it from pressure.

CAUTION

Always watch for signs of possible infection
(pus, redness, throbbing, and so forth). DO
NOT perform self-care for blisters that lie deep
in the middle of the palm of your hand or the
sole of your foot.

i

»

C-11

FM 21-11

NOTES

i

i

4

C-12

»

FM 21-11
APPENDIX D

CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION
WITH TWO RESCUERS

D-l. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Procedures

a If there are two rescuers (Figure D-l), one performing rescue
breathing and the other administering external chest compression, the
person administering external chest compression should compress the
heart once every second (80 to 100 compressions per minute). At this rate
he does not pause for breaths to be blown into the airway. The
compressions must be uninterrupted, regular, and smooth. Relaxation
must immediately follow compression and should be of equal duration.
Proper timing for 80 to 100 compressions per minute with a natural
rhythm is achieved by counting aloud as follows: "one, one-thousand;
two, one-thousand; three, one-thousand; four, one-thousand; five, one-
thousand; one, one-thousand." There should be no pause or hesitation
following the fifth compression prior to the first compression of the next
cycle of five. Each time the rescuer says the counting number, he
compresses the heart; and as he says, "one-thousand," he releases the
pressure.

NOTE

CPR should be performed only by qualified
personnel.

h. The member of the rescue team who is performing rescue
breathing (the ventilator) quickly blows into the casualty's lungs after
each five compressions (5:1 ratio). In other words, when the other rescuer
(the chest compressor) says, "five, one-thousand," this is the signal for
the ventilator to blow a deep breath into the casualty's airway. The
breaths are given without any pauses in compression. This is
IMPORTANT, because any interruption in heart compression results in
a drop in blood flow and blood pressure can fall to zero. Additionally, the
ventilator should feel for the carotid pulse frequently. Once a pulse is
detected, he stops CPR and monitors the casualty. Rescue breathing may
still have to be performed.

NOTE

Ventilation and compression should be
interrupted every few minutes to check for the
return of breathing and to check for a pulse. A
logical time to do this would be at the time of
the switch in position of the rescuers.

D-1

FM 21-11

i

Figure D-1. Two rescuer CPR.

D-2

FM 21-11

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D-3

FM 21-11

c. Two rescuers can perform CPR best when they are on
opposite sides of the casualty. They can then switch positions without
any significant interruption in the 5 to 1 rhythm. This can be smoothly
accomplished when the chest compressor says, "Change, one-thousand;
two, one-thousand; three, one-thousand; four, one-thousand; five, one-
thousand." The ventilator after giving a breath, moves into position to
give compressions. The chest compressor, after giving the fifth
compression, moves to the casualty's head and checks the carotid pulse
for 5 seconds but no longer. If a pulse is detected, he stops CPR and
monitors the casualty. Rescue breathing may still be needed. If no pulse
is felt, the rescuer at the head gives a breath and says, "No Pulse." The
new chest compressor then restarts compressions.

D-2. Cessation of Resuscitative Measures

DO NOT stop resuscitative measures if you start to feel discomfort. You
may have to perform these lifesaving measures for a long time after
feeling the heavy effects of body discomfort and fatigue. Continue them
until the casualty starts to breathe on his own or until you are reheved by
another individual or until you cannot continue.

•1

«

«

D-4

FM 21-11

»

APPENDIX E
DIGITAL PRESSURE

Apply Digital Pressure

Digital pressure (also often called 'pressure points") is an alternate
method to control bleeding. This method uses pressure from the fingers,
thumbs, or hands to press at the site or point where a main artery
supplying the wounded area lies near the skin surface or over bone
(Figure E-1). This pressure may help shut off or slow down the flow of
blood from the heart to the wound and is used in combination with direct
pressure and elevation. It may help in instances where bleeding is not
easily controlled, where a pressure dressing has not yet been applied, or
where pressure dressings are not readily available.

\

FOOT

\

If blood is spurting from wound (artery), press at the point or site where main
artery supplying the wounded area lies near skin surface or over bone as shown.
This pressure shuts off or slows down the flow of blood from the heart to the
wound until a pressure dressing can be unwrapped and applied. You will know
you have located the artery when you feel a pulse.

Figure E-1. Digital pressure (pressure with fingers, thumbs or hands).

E-1

FM 21-11

i

NOTES

i

«

E-2

FM 21-11

I

APPENDIX F

DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES

F-l. Protective Measures and Handling of Casualties

CL Depending on the theater of operations, guidance issued may
dictate the assumption of a minimum mission-oriented protective
posture (MOPP) level. However, a full protective posture (MOPP 4) level
will be assumed immediately when the alarm or command is given.
(MOPP 4 level consists of wearing the protective overgarment, mask,
hood, gloves, and overboots.) If individuals find themselves alone
without adequate guidance, they should mask and assume the MOPP 4
level under any of the following conditions.

(1) Their position is hit by a concentration of artillery,
mortar, rocket fire, or by aircraft bombs if chemical agents have been
used or the threat of their use is significant.

^

(2) Their position is under attack by aircraft spray.

(3) Smoke or mist of an unknown source is present or
pproaching.

(4) A suspicious odor or a suspicious liquid is present.

(5) A toxic chemical or biological attack is suspected.

(6) They are entering an area known to be or suspected of
being contaminated with a toxic chemical or biological agent.

(7) During any motor march, once chemical warfare has
been initiated.

(8) When casualties are being received from an area where
chemical agents have reportedly been used.

(9) They have one or more of the following signs/symptoms:

(a ) An unexplained sudden runny nose.

(6) A feeling of choking or tightness in the chest or
throat.

►

(c) Blurring of vision and difficulty in focusing the
es on close objects.

(d) Irritation of the eyes (could be caused by the
presence of several toxic chemical agents).

F-1

FM 21-11

(e) Unexplained difficulty in breathing or increased
rate of breathing.

if) Sudden feeling of depression.

ig) Dread, anxiety, restlessness.

(h) Dizziness or light-headedness.

(i) Slurred speech.

(10) Unexplained laughter or unusual behavior noted in
others.

(11) Buddies suddenly collapsing without evident cause.

b. Stop breathing; don the protective mask, seat it properly,
clear it, and check it for seal; then resume breathing. The mask should be
worn until unmasking procedures indicate no chemical agent is in the air
and the "all clear" signal is given. (See FM 3-4 for unmasking
procedures.) If vomiting occurs, the mask should be lifted momentariljAj
and drained— while the eyes are closed and the breath is held— anc^
replaced, cleared, and sealed.

c. Casualties contaminated with a chemical agent may
endanger unprotected personnel. Handlers of these casualties must wear
a protective mask, protective gloves, and chemical protective clothing
until the casualty's contaminated clothing has been removed. The
battalion aid station should be established upwind from the most heavily
contaminated areas, if it is expected that troops will remain in the area
six hours or more. Collective protective shelters must be used to
adequately manage casualties on the integrated battlefield. Casualties
must be undressed and decontaminated, as required, in an area equipped
for the removal of contaminated clothing and equipment prior to entering
collective protection. Contaminated clothing and equipment should be
placed in airtight containers or plastic bags, if available, or removed to a
designated dump site downwind from the aid station.

F-2. Personal Decontamination

Following contamination of the skin or eyes with vesicants (mustards,
lewisite, and so forth) or nerve agents, personal decontamination must be^
carried out immediately. This is because chemical agents are effective ajH
very small concentrations and within a very few minutes after exposure^j
decontamination is marginally effective. Decontamination consists of
either removal and/or neutralization of the agent. Decontamination after

F-2

FM 21-11

I

»

absorption occurs may serve little or no purpose. Soldiers will
decontaminate themselves unless they are incapacitated. For soldiers
who cannot decontaminate themselves, the nearest able person should
assist them as the situation permits.

NOTE

In a cyanide only environment, there would be
no need for decontamination.

a. Eyes. Following contamination of the eyes with any chemical
agent, the agent must be removed instantly. In most cases, identity of
the agent will not be known immediately. Individuals who suspect
contamination of their eyes or face must quickly obtain overhead shelter
to protect themselves while performing the following decontamination
process:

(1) Remove and open your canteen.

(2) Take a deep breath and hold it.

(3) Remove the mask.

(4) Flush or irrigate the eye, or eyes, immediately with
large amounts of water. To flush the eyes with water from a canteen (or
other container of uncontaminated water), tilt the head to one side, open
the eyelids as wide as possible, and pour water slowly into the eye so that
it will run off the side of the face to avoid spreading the contamination.
This irrigation must be carried out despite the presence of toxic vapors in
the atmosphere. Hold your breath and keep your mouth closed during
this procedure to prevent contamination and absorption through the
mucous membranes. Chemical residue flushed from the eyes should be
neutralized along the flush path.

WARNING

DO NOT use the fingers or gloved hands for
holding the eyelids apart. Instead, open the
eyes as wide as possible and pour the water as
indicated above.

(5) Replace, clear, and check your mask. Then resume
^breathing.

W (6) If contamination was picked up while flushing the eyes,

then decontaminate the face. Follow procedure outUned in paragraph
b{2){a)-{ae) below.

F-3

FM 21-11

«

b. Skin (Hands, Face, Neck, Ears, and Other Exposed Areas).
The M258A1 Skin Decontamination Kit (Figure F-1) is provided
individuals for performing emergency decontamination of their skin (and
selected small equipment, such as the protective gloves, mask, hood, and
individual weapon).

~ FOLDED WIPE (DRY)

COVER

THREE DECON-1 PACKETS

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THREE AMPULES

I

Figure F-1. M258A1 Skin Decontamination Kit.

(1) Description of the M258A1 kit. The M258A1 kit
measures 1 3/4 by 2 3/4 by 4 inches and weighs 0.2 pounds. Each kit
contains six packets: three DECON-1 packets and three DECON-2
packets. DECON-1 packet contains a pad premoistened with
hydroxyethane 72%, phenol 10%, sodium hydroxide 5%, and ammonia
0.2%, and the remainder water. DECON-2 packet contains a pad
impregnated with chloramine B and sealed glass ampules filled with
hydroxyethane 45%, zinc chloride 5%, and the remainder water. The case
fits into the pocket on the outside rear of the M17 series protective mask
carrier or in an inside pocket of the carrier for the M24 and M25 series
protective mask. The case can also be attached to the web belt or on the D
ring of the protective mask carrier.

i

F-4

FM 21-11

(2) Use of the M258A1 kit. It should be noted that the
procedures outhned in paragraphs (a) thru (ae) below were not intended to
replace or supplant those contained in STP 21-1-SMCT but, rather, to
expand on the doctrine of skin decontamination.

WARNING

The ingredients of the DECON-1 and
DECON-2 packets of the M258A1 kit are
poisonous and caustic and can permanently
damage the eyes. KEEP PADS OUT OF THE
EYES, MOUTH, AND OPEN WOUNDS. Use
water to wash the toxic agent out of the eyes or
wounds, except in the case of mustard.
Mustard may be removed by thorough
immediate wiping.

WARNING

The complete decon (WIPES 1 and 2) of the
face must be done as quickly as possible—
3 minutes or less.

WARNING

DO NOT attempt to decontaminate the face or
neck before putting on a protective mask.

NOTE

Use the buddy system to decontaminate
exposed skin areas you cannot reach.

NOTE

Blisters caused by blister agents are actually
burns and should be treated as such. Bhsters
which have ruptured are treated as open
wounds.

(a) Put on the protective mask (if not already on).

(6 ) Seek overhead cover or use a poncho for protection
against further contamination.

F-5

FM 21-11

4

«

(c) Remove the M258A1 kit. Open the kit and remove
one DECON-1 WIPE packet by its tab.

(d) Fold the packet on the solid line marked BEND,
then unfold it.

ie) Tear open the packet quickly at the notch, and
remove the wipe and fully open it.

if) Wipe your hands.

NOTE

If you have a chemical agent on your face, do
steps ig) through (t). If you do not have an
agent on your face, do step (m), continue to
decon other areas of contaminated skin, then
go to step (n).

NOTE

You must hold your breath while doing steps
ig) through {/). If you need to breathe before
you finish, reseal your mask, clear it and check
it, then continue.

ig) Hold your breath, close your eyes, and hft the hood
and mask from your chin.

( h) Scrub up and down from ear to ear.

1. Steirt at an ear.

2. Scrub across the face to the corner of the nose.

3. Scrub an extra stroke at the corner of the nose.

4. Scrub across the nose and tip of the nose to the
corner of the nose.

5. Scrub an extra stroke at the corner of the nose.

6. Scrub across the face to the other ear. ^k\

( i) Scrub up and down from the ear to the end of the
jawbone.

F-6

»

»

mouth,
mouth,
the upper lip.

the mouth.

mouth.

jawbone.

FM 21-11

1. Begin where step {h) ended.

2. Scrub across the cheek to the comer of the

3. Scrub an extra stroke at the corner of the

4. Scrub across the closed mouth to the center of

5. Scrub an extra stroke above the upper lip.

6. Scrub across the closed mouth to the corner of

7. Scrub £m extra stroke at the corner of the

8. Scrub across the cheek to the end of the

(7) Scrub up and down from one end of the jawbone to
the other end of the jawbone.

\

cupping the chin.

the jawbone,
the face,
breathing,
and the ears.

1. Begin where step (i) ended.

2. Scrub across and under the jaw to the chin,

3. Scrub an extra stroke at the cleft of the chin.

4. Scrub across and under the jaw to the end of

( k) Quickly wipe the inside of the mask which touches
(/) Reseal, clear, and check the mask. Resume

( m) Using the same DECON-1 WIPE, scrub the neck

{n) Rewipe the hands.

(o) Drop the wipe to the ground.

F-7

FM 21-11

fl

(p) Remove one DECON-2 WIPE packet, and crush
the encased glass ampules between the thumb and fingers. DO NOT
KNEAD.

iq) Fold the packet on the solid line marked CRUSH
AND BEND, then unfold it.

(r) Tear open the packet quickly at the notch and
remove the wipe.

(s) Fully open the wipe. Let the encased crushed glass
ampules fall to the ground.

(t) Wipe your hands.

NOTE

If you have an agent on your face, do steps (u)
through (ae). If you do not have an agent on
your face, do step (aa), continue to decon other
areas of contaminated skin, then go to step
{fib).

«

NOTE

You must hold your breath while doing steps
(u) through (z). If you need to breathe before
you finish, reseal your mask, clear it and check
it, then continue.

iu) Hold your breath, close your eyes, and lift the hood
and mask away from your chin.

(v) Scrub up and down from ear to ear.

1. Start at an ear.

2. Scrub across the face to the corner of the nose.

3. Scrub an extra stroke at the corner of the nose.

4. Scrub across the nose and tip of the nose to th^^k
corner of the nose. ^^

5. Scrub an extra stroke at the corner of the nose.

F-8

FM 21-11

I

»

jawbone.

mouth.

mouth.

the upper lip.

the mouth.

mouth.

jawbone.

6. Scrub across the face to the other ear.
( w) Scrub up and down from the ear to the end of the

1. Begin where step (v) ended.

2. Scrub across the cheek to the corner of the

3. Scrub an extra stroke at the corner of the

4. Scrub across the closed mouth to the center of

5. Scrub an extra stroke above the upper Up.

6. Scrub across the closed mouth to the corner of

7. Scrub an extra stroke at the corner of the

8. Scrub across the cheek to the end of the

ipc) Scrub up and down from one end of the jawbone to
the other end of the jawbone.

»

cupping the chin.

the jawbone,
the face,
breathing.

and ears.

1. Begin where step {w) ended.

2. Scrub across and under the jaw to the chin,

3. Scrub an extra stroke at the cleft of the chin.

4. Scrub across and under the jaw to the end of

iy) Quickly wipe the inside of the mask which touches
(z) Reseal, clear, and check the mask. Resume

(aa) Using the same DECON-2 WIPE, scrub the neck

(ab) Re wipe the hands.

F-9

FM 21-11

<l

(ac) Drop the wipe to the ground.

(ad) Put on the protective gloves and any other
protective clothing, as appropriate. Fasten the hood straps and neck
cord.

(ae) Bury the decontaminating packet and other items
dropped on the ground, if circumstances permit.

c. Clothing and Equipment. Although the M258A1 may be
used for decontamination of selected items of individual clothing and
equipment (for example, the soldier's individual weapon), there is
insufficient capability to do more than emergency spot decont£imination.
The M258A1 is not used to decontaminate the protective overgarment.
The protective overgarment does not require immediate decontamination
since the charcoal layer is a decontaminating device; however, it must be
exchanged, using the procedures outlined in FM 3-5. The Individual
Equipment Decontamination Kit (DKIE), M280 (similar in configuration
to the M258A1), is used to decontaminate equipment such as the weapon,
helmet, and other gear that is carried by the individual.

F-3. Casualty Decontamination

Contaminated casualties entering the medical treatment system are
decontaminated through a decentraHzed process. This is initially started
through self-aid and buddy aid procedures. Later, units should further
decontaminate the casualty before evacuation. Casualty
decontamination stations are established at the field medical treatment
facility to further decontaminate these individuals (clothing remov£il and
spot decontamination, as required) prior to treatment and evacuation.
These stations are manned by nonmedical members of the supported unit
under supervision of medical personnel. There are insufficient medical
personnel to both decontaminate and treat casualties. The medical
personnel must be available for treatment of the casualties during and
after decontamination by nonmedical personnel. Decontamination is
accomplished as quickly as possible to facilitate medical treatment,
prevent the casualty from absorbing additional agent, and reduce the
spread of chemical contamination.

«

tl

F-10

FM 21-11
APPENDIX G

SKILL LEVEL 1 TASKS

(STP 21-1-SMCT Soldier's Manual of
Common Tasks [Skill Level I])

Task Number Task Title FM Paragraph

081-831-1000 Evaluate a Casualty M, 1-2, 2-2, 2-22,

3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 4-2,'
4-9, 4-10.

081-831-1003 Clear an Object from the 2-13.

Throat of a Conscious
Casualty

081-831-1005 Prevent Shock 2-23.

081-831-1007 Give First Aid for Burns 3-14.

081-831-1008 Recognize and Give First 5-1.

Aid for Heat Injuries

081-831-1009 Give First Aid for Frostbite 5-2.

081-831-1016 Put on a Field or Pressure 2-15, 2-17, 2-18,

Dressing 2-19.

081-831-1017 Put on a Tourniquet 2-20.

081-831-1025 Apply a Dressing to an Open 3-12.

Abdominal Wound

081-831-1026 Apply a Dressing to an Open 3-9, 3-10.

Chest Wound

081-831-1030 Administer Nerve Agent 7-5, 7-7, 7-8.

Antidote to Self (Self-Aid)

081-831-1031 Administer First Aid to a 7-5, 7-7, 7-8.

Nerve Agent Casualty
(Buddy Aid)

G-1

FM 21-11

I

Task Number Task Title FM Paragraph

081-831-1033 Apply a Dressing to an Open 3-3, 3-4, 3-8.

Head Wound

081-831-1034 Splint a Suspected Fracture 4-4. 4-5, 4-6, 4-7.

081-831-1040 Transport a Casualty Using a B-9.

One-Man Carry

081-831-1041 Transport a Casualty Using a B-9, B-10.

Two-Man Carry or an
Improvised Litter

081-831-1042 Perform Mouth-to-Mouth 2-2, 2-3, 2-5, 2-6,

Resuscitation 2-14.

«

G-2

«

I

FM 21-11

GLOSSARY

AC

hydrogen cyanide

adamsite DM

diphenylaminochlorgirsine

AIDS

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

BZ

anticholinergic drugs

cc

cubic centimeter

CG

phosgene

CK

cyanogen chloride

CL/cl

chlorine

CPR

cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CS or CN

tear agents

CSR

combat stress reaction

CTA

common table of allowances

CX

phosgene oxime

DA

Department of the Army;

diphenylchlorarsine

DC

diphenylcyanoarsine

DECON/decon

decontaminate

DKIE

individual equipment decontamination kit

DP

diaphosgene

ECC

emergency cardiac care

fl

fluid

FM

Field Manual; titanium tetrachloride

FS

sulfur trioxide-chlorosulfonic acid solution

HC

HC mixture

HD

mustard

HIV

human immunodeficiency virus

HN

nitrogen mustards

IPE

individual protective equipment

IV

intravenous infusion

JAMA

Journal of the American Medical

Association

L

lewisite

MILES

multiple integrated laser engagement

simulation

MKI

mark I

ml

milUliter

MOPP

mission-oriented protective posture

NAAK

nerve agent antidote kit

Glossary- 1

FM 21-11

NAPP

NATO

NBC

oz

PS

SMCT

SOP

STANAG

STD

STP

WP

2 PAM CI

<l

nerve agent pyridostigmine pretreatment

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

nuclear, biological, chemic2d

ounce

chloropicrin

soldiers manual of common tasks

standing operating procedure

standardization agreement

sexually transmitted disease

soldiers training publication

white phosphorus

pralixodime chloride

«

4

Giossary-2

FM 21-11

REFERENCES

REQUIRED PUBLICATIONS

Required publications are sources that users must read in order to
understand or to comply with this publication,

AR 600-110 Identification, Surveillance and Administration of

Personnel Infected with Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

DA Pam 351-20 Army Correspondence Course Program Catalog

DOD Medical Catalog Vol II

FM 3-4 NBC Protection

FM 3-5 NBC Decontamination (DECON)

FM 3-100 NBC Operations

FM 8-35 Evacuation of the Sick and Wounded

FM 8-230 Medical Speciahst

FM 21-10 Field Hygiene and Sanitation (AFM 161-10)

FM 26-2 Management of Stress in Army Operations

CTA 8-100 Army Medical Department Expendable/Durable

Items

CTA 50-900 Clothing and Individual Equipment

STP 21-1-SMCT Soldier's Manual of Common Tasks (Skill Level I)

RELATED PUBLICATIONS

Related publications are sources of additional information. They are not
required in order to understand this pubhcation.

Department of Defense:

AR 310-25 Dictionary of United States Army Terms

(Short Title AD) (Reprinted W/Basic Incl CI)

Reference- 1

FM 21-11

AR 310-50 Authorized Abbreviations, Brevity

Codes, and Acronyms

DA PAM 40-12 Who Needs It-Venereal Diseases

FM 8-9 NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of

NBC Defensive Operations (AMED
P-6; NAVMED P-5059; AFP 161-3)

FM 8-33 Control of Communicable Diseases

in Man, 14th Edition (NAVMED P-5038)

TM 3-4230-216-10 Operator's Manual for Decontaminating
Kit, Skin: M258A1 (NSN
4230-01-101-3984) and Training
Aid, Skin Decontaminating: M58A1
(6910-01-101-1768)

FM 8-285 Treatment of Chemical Agent

Casualties and Conventional
Military Chemical Injuries (NAVMED
P-5041; AFM 160-12)

TB MED 81 Cold Injury (NAVMED P-5052-29; AFP

161-11)

TB MED 507 Occupational and Environmental

Health Prevention, Treatment and
Control of Heat Injury (NAVMED
P-5052-5; AFP 161-1)

Other Publications:

American Heart Association. A Manual for Instructors of Basic Cardiac
Life Support. Dallas: American Heart Association, 1981.

Instructors Manual for Basic Life Support. Dallas:

American Heart Association, 1985.

JAMA. "Standards and Guidehnes for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
(CPR) and Emergency Cardiac Care (ECC)." , The Journal of the American
Medical Association, Vol 255., No. 21 (June 1986): 2905-2989.

Reference-2

FM 21-11

INDEX

Para Page

Abdominal Thrust 2-13c 2-23

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
( See Sexually transmitted diseases)

Airway:

Defined 1-3 a 1-8

Opening of 2-3, 2-13, 2-14 2-3, 2-22, 2-26

Arteries 1-36 1-9

Artificial respiration
( See Rescue breathing )

Bandages:

Cravat 3-4/i, 3-8^(2) 3-13, 3-22

Tailed 3-4e 3-8

Triangular 3-4^, 3-17a 3-5, 3-38

Bandaging of body parts:

Abdomen (stomach) 3-12d 3-30

Armpit 3-156 3-38

Cheek 3-86 3-18

Chest 3-lOc 3-24

Ear 3-8c 3-20

Elbow 3-16 3-39

Eyes 3-8a 3-16

Foot 3-20 3-43

Hand 3-17 3-40

Head 3-4e, 3-4/, 3-8, 3-9

3-4^, 3-4A, 3-12, 3-13

Jaw 3-8e 3-22

Knee 3-19 3-42

Leg 3-18 3-42

Shoulder 3-15 3-37

Battle fatigue
( See Psychological first aid)

Biological agents, protection from: 7-14 7-27

Bites:

Animal 6-3 6-9

Human 6-3 6-9

Insect 6-5 6-11

Snake 6-2 6-5

Spider 6-5a 6-11

Index- 1

FM 21-11

Para Page

Bleeding, control of:

Digital pressure App E E-1

Elevating the limb 2-17, 2-18, 2-19... 2-32, 2-35, 2-36

Manual pressure 2-18 2-35

Pressure dressing 2-19 2-36

Tourniquet 2-20 2-39

Blisters App C C-10

Blister agent

( See Toxic environment)
Blood:

Circulation 1-36 1-9

Loss 1-46 1-11

Vessels 1-36 1-9

Breathing

(See Respiration)
Burns:

Chemical 3-8a(4)( a) 3-17

3-14a(3) 3-34

Electrical 3-14a(2) 3-34

Incendiaries, from 7-13 7-26

Laser 3-8a,(4)( c), 3-17

3-14a(4) 3-35

Thermal 3-8a(4)( 6) 3-17

3-14a(l) 3-33

Types 3-13 3-33

Canteen cap C-3 C-1

Capillaries 1-36 1-9

Carbon dioxide 1-36 1-9

Cardiopulmonary resuscutation

( See Heart )
Carries, manual:
One-man carries:

Arms carry Fig B-3 B-14

Cradle drop drag Fig B-9 B-21

Fireman's carry Fig B-1 B-6

Neck drag Fig B-8 B-20

Pack-strap carry Fig B-5 B-15

Pistol belt:

Carry Fig B-6 B-17

Drag Fig B-7 B-19

Saddleback carry Fig B-4 B-15

Support carry Fig B-2 B-14

lndex-2

FM 21-11

Para Page

Two-man carries:

Arms carry Fig B-11 B-24

Fore-and-aft carry Fig B-12 B-27

Four-hand seat carry Fig B-14 B-30

Support carry Fig B-10 B-23

Two-hand seat carry Fig B-13 B-29

Chemical-biological agents:

Blister 7-3a 7-3

Blood 7-3a 7-3

Choking 7-3a 7-3

Incapacitating 7-3a 7-3

Nerve 7-3a 7-3

Protection from:

Nerve agent antiodote kit, Mark I.. 7-2e,7-6 7-3

Nerve agent pyridostigmine

pretreatment 7-2c 7-2

Vomiting 7-3, 7-5c 7-3

Chemical attack, first aid for 7-5 7-5

Chest cage l-3a 1-8

Chlamydia

(See Sexually transmitted diseases)

Circulation 1-36 1-9

Cold, conditions caused by 5-2c? 5-10

Combat lifesaver Preface

Combat stress reaction

(See Psychological first aid)

Contamination l-4d 1-12

Contents of First Aid Case and Kits App A A-1

Diaphragm l-3a 1-8

Digital pressure App E E-1

Disaster, reactions to 8-3, 8-8, 8-2, 8-4

Diseases, sexually transmitted

(See Sexually transmitted diseases)

Dislocation of bone 4-la 4-1

Dressing:

Field first aid App A A-1

Wounds 3-4€,/; 3-10c,d,e,.. 3-8, 3-9, 3-24

3-12d; 3-14c 3-25, 3-30, 3-36

Ear, injury of 3-8c 3-20

Elevation of lower extremities 2-186 2-36

Emotional disability 8-7 8-3

Equipment {See First Aid )

Exhalation l-3a 1-8

lndex-3

FM 21-11

Para Page

Eye, injury 3-8a 3-16

First aid:

Case, field App A A-1

Definition Preface

Do's and do not's 1-1 1-1

Equipment for toxic environment 7-2 7-1

Importance of 1-1 1-1

Kit:

Decontaminating App F F-1

General purpose App A A-1

Laser 3-8a(4)(cA 3-13 3-17, 3-33

3-14a(4) 3-35

Psychological 8-13 8-8

Foot:

Frostbite 5-2ci(3) 5-12

Immersion 5-2d(2) 5-11

Trench 5-2d(2) 5-11

Fractures:

Closed 4-la 4-1

Open 4-16 4-1

Signs of 4-2 4-2

Splinting and immobilizing:

Bandages for 4-4c 4-2

Collarbone 4-8 4-17

Improvisations for 4-4a 4-2

Jaw 4-8 4-17

Lower extremities 4-7 4-14

Neck 4-10 4-22

Padding for 4-46 4-2

Purpose for 4-3 4-2

Rules for 4-5 4-3

Shoulder 4-8 4-17

Slings for 4-4d 4-2

Spinal column 4-9a 4-19

Upper extremities 4-6 4-10

Frostbite 5-2d(3) 5-12

Germs l-4d 1-12

Gonorrhea:

( See Sexually transmitted diseases)

Heart:

Defined 2-8 2-13

lndex-4

4

FM 21-11

Para Page

CPR:

Application 2-9, 2-9b(3)Note.. 2-17

Cessation 2-lOa 2-18

One rescuer, with 2-10 2-18

Two rescuer, with 2-11, App D 2-20, D-1

Heartbeat 1-36(1), 2-8 1-9, 2-13

Heat:

Cramps 5-le(l), Table 5-1 5-3, 5-6

Exhaustion 5-le(2), Table 5-1 5-4, 5-6

Heatstroke 5-le{3), Table 5-1 5-5, 5-6

Heimlich hug
{fSee Abdominal thrust)
Hepatitis B
{See Sexually transmitted diseases)

Immersion foot 5-2d(2) 5-11

Infection, prevention of l-4d 1-12

Inhalation 1-3 1-7

Injector, nerve agent antidote 7-8 7-8

Injuries:

Abdominal 3-11, 3-12 3-28, 3-29

Chest 3-9, 3-10 3-23

Eye 3-8a 3-16

Ear 3-8c 3-20

Face 3-5, 3-7, 3-86 3-13, 3-14, 3-18

Head 3-1, 3-2, 3-3 3-1, 3-1, 3-2

Jaw 3-8e 3-22

Laser 3-14a(4),3-8a(4)(c) 3-35, 3-36

Mouth 3-5 3-13

Neck 3-6, 3-7 3-14

Nose 3-8d 3-21

Kit:

Decontaminating App F F-1

First aid, general purpose App A A-1

Laser 3-13, 3-14a(4) 3-33,

3-8a(4)(c) 3-17

Litters, improvised App B B-31

Lungs l-3a 1-8

Mask, protective:

Conditions for use 7-4 7-3

Equipment 7-2 7-1

Nerve agents 7-6, 7-7, 7-8 7-6, 7-7, 7-8

Nose, injury of S-Sd 3-21

lndex-5

FM 21-11

<l

Para Page

Nuclear, biological, chemical

iJSee Chemical, Biological Agents)

One-man carries App B, B-9a B-5

Oxygen 1-3, 1-4 1-7, Ml

Positioning injured soldier with/for:

Abdominal (stomach) wound 3-126 3-29

Artificial respiration (rescue

breathing) 2-4 2-3

Chest, sucking wound of 3-lOf 3-28

Conscious 3-7c 3-14

CPR 2-9, 2-10, 2-11,

App D 2-13, 2-18,

2-20, D-1

Face wound 3-5, 3-7c, 3-86 3-13,3-14,3-18

Fractures:

All 4-1 4-1

Neck 4-10 4-22

Spinal column 4-9 4-19

Head injury 3-4c 3-6 ^

Neck wound 4-9 4-19 W

Shock prevention 2-21, 2-22, 2-23... 2-39

Snakebite 6-2c 6-6

Unconscious 3-4c 3-6

Pressure points App E E-1

Psychological first aid:

Basic guides 8-2, 8-6 8-1, 8-3

Battle fatigue 8-10 8-5

Combat stress reactions 8-10 8-5

Defined 8-1 8-1

Goals of 8-5 8-3

Importance of 8-2 8-1

Measures Table 8-1 8-12

Need for 8-13 8-8

Principles of 8-4 8-2

Reaction requiring 8-3, 8-11 8-2, 8-5

Pulse 1-3 1-7

Rate of:
CPR:

One rescuer 2-10 2-18

Two rescuer 2-11, App D 2-20, D-1

Pulse 1-3 1-7

Rescue breathing 2-4 2-7

Reassuring injured soldier 8-6 8-3

lndex-6

«

FM 21-11

»

Rescue breathing; method of:

Mouth-to-mouth

Mouth-to-nose

Respiration:

Artificial

Defined

Scorpion sting

Sexually transmitted diseases:

Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome

Chlamydia

Gonorrhea

Hepatitis B

Syphilis

Shock:

Defined

Prevention

Signs

Snakebite

Snow blindness

Spider bite

Splinting of fracture

iJSee Fractures, splinting)

Sprains

Sunburn

Sunstroke

i(See Heatstroke)
Supplies

(See First Aid )
Syphilis

( See Sexually transmitted diseases)

Throat, foreign body in.

Thrusts

Abdominal

Chest

Jaw

Tourniquet:

Application of

Marking

Toxic environment:

First aid for:
Bhster agents

Para Page

2-6 2-8

2-7 2-13

2-4, 2-5 2-7

2-4 2-7

6-5 C-3

C-6a C-4

C-6 C-3

C-6 C-3

C-6 C-3

C-6 C-3

2-21 2-44

2-23 2-45

2-22 2-44

6-2 6-5

5-2d{4) 5-15

6-5 6-11

4-la 4-1

5-1 5-1

2-3, 2-13, 2-14 2-3, 2-22, 2-26

2-13c, 2-146 2-23, 2-26

2-13c, 2-14c 2-23, 2-27

2-36, 2-14 2-4, 2-26

2-20 2-39

2-20c(6) & (7) 2-43

7-9(c) 7-22

lndex-7

FM 21-11

•I

Blood agents 7-llc 7-22

Chemical attack 7-llc 7-25

Choking agents 7-lOc 7-23

Incapacitating agents 7-12 7-25

Incendiaries 7-13c 7-26

Nerve agents 7-8 7-8

Vomiting 7-9c(4), 7-10c(2)... 7-23, 7-24

Protection from 7-2 7-1

Trachea, obstniction of 2-3 2-2

Transporting the wounded soldier App B B-4, B-5, B-31

Trench foot 5-2d(2) 5-11

Two-man carries App B B-23

Veins 1-3 1-7

Vital body functions 1-3, 1-4 1-7, Ml

Wounds:

All 2-16, 3-3, 3-4 2-28, 3-2, 3-5

Severe:

Abdominal (stomach) 3-11, 3-12 3-28, 3-29,

Burns 3-13 3-33

Chest, sucking 3-9, 3-10 3-23

Face 3-5 3-13

Head 3-1, 3-4 3-1, 3-5

Neck 3-6 3-14

•

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lndex-8

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FM 21-11

27 OCTOBER 1988

By Order of the Secretary of the Army:

CARL E. VUONO

General, United States Army
Chief of Staff

»

Official

WILLIAM J. MEEHAN II

Brigadier General, United States Army
The Adjutant General

DISTRIBUTION:

Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance
with DA Form 12-11 A, Requirements for First Aid for Soldiers (Qty
rqr block no. 161 ).

»

^ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1988-5 26 -0 27 /8 0083

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PIN: 007188-000